mikrobiologie

Definition

Researchonthelawsoflifeactivitiessuchasmicrobialmorphology,physiologyandbiochemistry,geneticvariation,ecologicaldistributionandclassificationevolution,andapplythemtoindustrialfermentation,medicalhygiene,bioengineeringandenvironmentProtectionandotherpracticalfieldsofscience.

Subjects

Microbiologyisanimportantbasiccourseorprofessionalbasiccourserequiredforbiologymajorsincollegesanduniversities,anditisalsothetheoreticalandtechnicalbasisofmodernhigh-techbiotechnology.Geneticengineering,cellengineering,enzymeengineeringandfermentationengineeringareformedanddevelopedonthebasisofmicrobiologyprinciplesandtechnology;microbiologyisalsooneoftheimportantcornerstonesforthedevelopmentofbiologicalmajorsandmodernizationofagricultureandforestryinhigheragriculturalandforestrycolleges.Withthewidespreadapplicationofbiotechnology,microbiologywillhaveahugeimpactonmodernandfuturehumanproductionactivitiesandlives.

Historicalorigin

Experiencestage

Sinceancienttimes,humanshavebeenawareofthelifeactivitiesofmicroorganismsandtheireffectsindailylifeandproductionpractices.ThehistoryofChina'suseofmicroorganismsforwinemakingcanbetracedbacktotheLongshanCultureperiodmorethan4,000yearsago.Thesaucemakingtechnologywasinvented2600yearsago.Theword"wine"isengravedintheoracleboneinscriptionsoftheYinandShangera.IntheQiMinYaoShu(533~544)byJiaSixieoftheNorthernWeiDynasty,methodsofmakingkojifromgrains,makingwine,makingsauce,makingvinegar,andpicklingvegetablesarelisted.

InthestonecarvingsleftbehindinancientGreece,thereisarecordoftheoperationprocessofwinemaking.DuringtheSpringandAutumnandWarringStatesPeriod,Chinausedthefunctionofmicroorganismstodecomposeorganicmattertodecontaminatemanureandaccumulatemanure.The"BookofPanSheng"inthefirstcenturyADproposedasystemofripemanurefieldsandintercroppingofmelonsandadzukibeans.Inthe2ndcentury"ShenNong'sMateriaMedica",thereisarecordofwhitebasssilkwormcuringdiseases.Inthe"ZuoZhuan"ofthe6thcentury,thereisarecordofthetreatmentofdiarrheawithwheatqu.Inthe10thcentury"YiZongJinJian",thereisarecordaboutthemethodofvaccination.In1796,theBritishJennerinventedthevacciniavaccine,whichlaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofimmunology.

Morfologická fáze

V 17. století používal Holanďan Leeuwenhoek doma vyrobený jednoduchý mikroskop (který lze 160 až 260krát zvětšit), aby pozoroval zubní kámen, dešťovou vodu, studniční vodu a infuzi rostlin, pokud bylo později zjištěno, že jejich použití bylo "používáno" mnoho textových a malých pohybů bakterií (kulatých, tyčovitých, spirálovitých atd.), které člověk viděl nejdříve „drobná zvířata“. Brzy poté italský botanikP .AmiKelly také použil jednoduchý mikroskop, aby pozoroval morfologii houby.V roce 1838 německý zoolog C.G.v knize "Ciliates are RealOrganisms", Ehrenberg rozdělil třídu nálevníků na 22 rodin, včetně 3 rodin bakterií (jednu bakterii (zde označované slovo a 8 bakterií) a 8 bakterií v Německu. J. Cosi objevil výtrusy tyčinkovitých bakterií. Teplo připsal bakterii říši rostlin a určil taxonomický stav bakterií v následujících stovkách let.

Physiologicalstage

Theresearchofmicrobiologyhasenteredthephysiologicalstagesincethe1860s.FrenchscientistL.Pasteur'sresearchonmicrobialphysiologylaidthefoundationformodernmicrobiology.Pasteur,achemist,setfootinmicroorganismstotreat"winedisease"and"silkwormdisease."Hearguedthatthebrewingofwineandvinegarandthecorruptionofsomesubstancesarefermentationprocessescausedbycertaintypesofmicroorganisms,notfermentationorcorruptionthatproducesmicroorganisms.Thefamousretortexperimenthasindisputablyconfirmedthis;hebelievesthatfermentationItistherespirationofmicroorganismsinanenvironmentwithoutair,andthedeteriorationofwineistheresultofthegrowthofharmfulmicroorganisms;hefurtherprovesthatdifferentmicroorganismshaveuniquemetabolicfunctions,whichrequiredifferentlivingconditionsandcausedifferenteffects;heAheatsterilizationmethodtopreventdeteriorationofwinewasproposed,whichwaslatercalledPasteursterilizationmethod.Usingthismethod,thenewlyproducedwineandbeercanbestoredforalongtime.Kochhasmadegreatcontributionstotheemergingmedicalmicrobiology.KochfirstarguedthatBacillusanthracisisthecausativebacteriumofanthracnose,andthenhediscoveredthecausativebacteriaoftuberculosisandcholera,andadvocatedtheuseofdisinfectionandsterilizationmethodstopreventthespreadofthesediseases;hisstudentsalsodiscovereddiphtheria,pneumonia,tetanus,andplague.Suchpathogenicbacterialedpeopletoattachgreatimportancetobacteriaatthattimeandinthefollowingdecades;hepioneeredthestainingmethodofbacteria,usingagarasasolidificationmediumtocultivatebacteriaandseparatesinglecoloniestoobtainpureculture;HestipulatedthemethodsandproceduresforidentifyingpathogenicbacteriaandputforwardthefamousKoch'slaw.In1860,theBritishsurgeonJ.Listerapplieddrugstosterilizeandcreatedasterilesurgicaloperationmethod.In1901,thefamousbacteriologistandzoologistИ.И.Mechnikovdiscoveredtheeffectofwhitebloodcellsonphagocytosisofbacteriaandcontributedtothedevelopmentofimmunology.

Russian-bornFrenchmicrobiologistC.H.Basedonthediscoveryofsulfurbacteriain1887andthediscoveryofnitrifyingbacteriain1890,Vinogradzdemonstratedthemicrobiologicalprocessofsulfidationandnitrificationinsoilandthechemicalenergyandnutritioncharacteristicsofthesebacteria.Hewasthefirsttodiscovertheanaerobicautogenousnitrogen-fixingbacteria,andusedtheprinciplesandmethodsofinorganicculturemedium,selectiveculturemediumandenrichmentculturetostudythelifeactivitiesofvariousphysiologicalgroupsofsoilbacteria,andrevealedthatsoilmicroorganismsparticipateinthetransformationofsoilmaterials.Thisrolehaslaidthecornerstoneforthedevelopmentofsoilmicrobiology.

In1892,RussianplantphysiologistД.И.Ivanovskydiscoveredthattobaccomosaicpathogensareorganismsthataresmallerthanbacteria,canpassthroughbacterialfilters,andcannotbedetectedbyopticalmicroscopes.Theyarecalledfilterviruses.From1915to1917,F.W.TwaterandF.H.DeHerrelobservedtheappearanceofplaquesonthebacterialcoloniesandthelysisphenomenonintheculturesolution,andfoundbacterialviruses-phages.Thediscoveryofviruseshasexpandedpeople'sconceptofbiologyfromcellulartonon-cellular.

Inthisstage,theestablishmentofmicrobialmanipulationtechnologyandresearchmethodsisauniquesymbolofthedevelopmentofmicrobiology.

Biochemistrystage

Sincethe20thcentury,thepenetrationofbiochemistryandbiophysicsintomicrobiology,coupledwiththeinventionofelectronmicroscopeandtheapplicationofisotopetraceratoms,haspromotedmicroorganismsThedevelopmentoflearningtothestageofbiochemistry.In1897,theGermanscholarE.Bischnerdiscoveredthatthecell-freeextractofyeastcanfermentsugarliquidtoproduceethanollikeyeast,andthusunderstandtheenzymaticprocessofyeastalcoholfermentation,combiningmicrobiallifeactivitieswithenzymechemistry.G.Neubergetal.'sresearchonyeastphysiologyandtheanalysisofalcoholfermentationintermediateproducts,A.J.Kleivo’sresearchonmicrobialmetabolismandthecomparativebiochemicalresearchdirectionshepioneered,aswellasaseriesofbasicphysiologicalandmetabolicpathwaystudiesconductedbymanyotherpeopleusingEscherichiacoliasmaterials,haveclarifiedthelawsandregulationsofmetabolismoforganisms.Thebasicprincipleofcontrollingitsmetabolism,andexpandingtheuseofmicroorganismsonthebasisofcontrollingmicrobialmetabolism,developingenzymology,andpromotingthedevelopmentofbiochemistry.Sincethe1930s,peoplehaveusedmicroorganismsfortheindustrialproductionofethanol,acetone,butanol,glycerol,variousorganicacids,aminoacids,proteins,oils,etc.

In1929,A.FlemingdiscoveredthatPenicilliumcaninhibitthegrowthofStaphylococcus,revealedtheantagonisticrelationshipbetweenmicroorganismsanddiscoveredpenicillin.In1949,S.AWaxmandiscoveredstreptomycinbasedonthedataaccumulatedinhisyearsofstudyingsoilmicroorganisms.Sincethen,moreandmorenewantibioticshavebeendiscovered.Inadditiontomedicaluse,theseantibioticsarealsousedtocontrolanimalandplantdiseasesandfoodpreservation.

MolecularBiology

In1941,G.W.BiddleandE.L.TatumusedX-raysandultravioletraystoirradiateAlternaria,causingittomutateandobtainauxotrophs.Theirresearchonauxotrophscannotonlyfurtherunderstandtheroleandnatureofgenes,butalsolaythefoundationformoleculargenetics.In1944,O.T.Averyconfirmedforthefirsttimethatdeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)isthesubstancethatcausesthegenetictransformationofpneumococcalcapsuleformation.In1953,J.D.WatsonandF.H.C.CrickproposedthedoublehelixstructuremodelofDNAmoleculesandthetheoryofhalf-reservednucleicacidreplication.H.Frankel-Conradandothersprovedthatribonucleicacid(RNA)isacarrierofgeneticinformationthroughtobaccomosaicvirusrecombinationexperiments,whichplayedanimportantroleinlayingthefoundationofmolecularbiology.Later,hediscoveredthemechanismoftransferribonucleicacid(tRNA),thetheoryofgenetripletcodes,themicrostructureofviruses,theprocessofinfectionandproliferation,andthemechanismofbiologicalnitrogenfixation,andotherimportanttheoriesinmicrobiology,demonstratingthebroadapplicationprospectsofmicrobiology..In1957,A.KornbergandotherssuccessfullycarriedouttheinvitrocombinationandmanipulationofDNA.Theresearchofprokaryoticmicrobialgenerecombinationhasmadecontinuousprogress.Insulinhasbeenfermentedwithgene-transferredEscherichiacoli,andinterferonhasalsobeenproducedbybacteria.Theresearchofmodernmicrobiologywillcontinuetodeepentothemolecularlevelanddeveloptothedepthandbreadthofproduction.Branches

Microbiologyhasexperiencedmorethanacenturyofdevelopment,andalargenumberofbrancheshavebeendifferentiated.Accordingtoincompletestatistics(1990),therehavebeenasmanyas181subjects.Accordingtoitsnature,itcanbesimplysummarizedintothefollowing6categories:

⑴Accordingtothepurposeofstudyingthebasiclawsoflifeactivitiesofmicroorganisms,thegeneralsubjectiscalledGeneralMicrobiology,anditisdividedintosubjects.Suchasmicrobialtaxonomy,microbialphysiology,microbialgenetics,microbialecologyandmolecularmicrobiology.

⑵Podle mikrobiálních výzkumných objektů, jako je bakteriologie, mykologie (mykologie), virologie, prokaryotická biologie, autotrofní bakteriální biologie a anaerobní bakteriální biologie atd.

⑶Accordingtotheecologicalenvironmentwherethemicroorganismsarelocated,suchassoilmicrobiology,microecology,marinemicrobiology,environmentalmicrobiology,watermicrobiologyandcosmicmicrobiology.

⑷Podle oboru mikrobiologie se dělí na obecné obory zvanéAplikovaná mikrobiologie, podobory, jako je průmyslová mikrobiologie, zemědělská mikrobiologie, lékařská mikrobiologie, lékařská mikrobiologie, diagnostika mikrobiologie, antibiotika, antibiotika.

⑸Accordingtotheintersectionandintegrationofdisciplines,suchaschemicalmicrobiology,analyticalmicrobiology,microbialbioengineering,microbialchemicaltaxonomy,microbialnumericaltaxonomy,microbialgeochemistryandmicrobialinformatics,etc.

⑹Accordingtoexperimentalmethodsandtechniques,suchasexperimentalmicrobiology,microbiologicalresearchmethods,etc.

Druh

Přehled

Význam mikroorganismů:netaxonomická podstatná jména, odvozeno z francouzského slova "Mikrobe". Je to obecný pojem pro malé, jednobuněčné nebo vícebuněčné buňky s jednoduchou individuální strukturou a dokonce s nižší strukturou.

Typ: Skupina mikroorganismů je velmi složitá, včetně: virů bez buněčné struktury, viroidů, virů atd.,

Prokaryota, aktinomycety, rickettsie, kvasinky a plísně patřící k eukaryotům, jednobuněčné řasy, prvoci atd.

Systém dvou světů

Zvíře: Nemá žádnou buněčnou stěnu, může se pohybovat a neprovádí fotosyntézu.

Rostliny rostlinného království: mají buněčnou stěnu, nepohybují se a mohou provádět fotosyntézu.

Tři říše:Protista:(EHHaeckel,proposedin1866)

FiveRealmsSystem

Prokaryotní Monera: bakterie, aktinomycety atd.

Protista:Řasy, prvoci, plísně atd.

Houby: Kvasinky, plísně

Zvířata:

Plantae:

TheFiveRealmsSystemisbasedonthelevelofcellstructuredifferentiationandthetissuetypesrelatedtothethreemainnutritionalmethodsofphotosynthesis,absorptionandfeeding.Sixrealms:plusthevirusrealm.

ThreeRealms(Domains)System

AfterWoesecomparedthe16SrRNAsequencesofmorethan60strainsofbacteriawiththeoligonucleotidesequencecataloginganalysismethod,hewassurprisedtofindthattherewerenomethanogenicbacteriaatall.Thosesequencesthatarecharacteristicofbacteria,soproposedthethirdformoflife-archaebacteria(archaebacteria).Subsequently,heperformed16SrRNA(18SrRNA)sequenceanalysisandcomparisonofalargenumberofstrains,includingsomeeukaryotes,andfoundthatextremehalophilesandextremeacidophilicbacteriaarealsothesameasmethanogenicbacteria,withdifferentandothercharacteristics.Bacteriaarealsodifferentfromthesequencefeaturesoftheirnuclearorganisms,andtheyhavemanycommonsequencefeatures.Soitwasproposedtodivideorganismsintothreekingdoms(Kingdom)(laterrenamedasthreedomains):Archaea,EubacteriaandEukaryotes.In1990,inordertoavoidseeingarchaeaasatypeofbacteria,herenamedthethreerealms(domains):Bacteria,ArchaeaandEukarya,andconstructedThephylogenetictreeofthethreerealms(domains).

Funkce

1. Malá velikost a velká specifická plocha

Thesizeofmicroorganismsismeasuredinμm,butthespecificsurfacearea(surfacearea/volume)islarge,whichmusthaveahugenutrientabsorption,metabolicwasteexcretionandenvironmentalinformationacceptance.Thisfeatureisalsothekeytothedifferencebetweenmicroorganismsandalllargeorganisms.

Příklad:Lactobacillus:120 000;Vejce:1,5;Lidé (200 liber):0,3

2.Vysoká absorpce a rychlá transformace

Thischaracteristicprovidesasufficientmaterialbasisforhigh-speedgrowthandreproductionandtheproductionofalargenumberofmetabolites.

Forexample:3gramsofhamstersconsumefoodequaltotheirbodyweighteveryday;1gramofflashgreenhummingbirdconsumestwicetheirbodyweighteveryday;Escherichiacoliconsumes2000timesthebodyweightofsugarperhour;fermentedlactoseThebacteriacandecomposelactose1,000to10,000timesitsownweightwithin1hourtoproducelacticacid;1kilogramofyeastcellscanfermentthousandsofkilogramsofsugarinonedaytoproducealcohol

3.Prosperujícírůstarychlávýroba

Extremelyhighgrowthandreproductionspeed,suchasE.colisplitsevery20-30minutes.Ifitdoesnotstopdividing,thebacterialcountof2.2×10^43willincreasein48hours,nutrientconsumption,metabolicaccumulation,Limitgrowthrate.Thisfeaturecanconvertalargenumberofsubstratesintousefulproductsinashorttime,shorteningthescientificresearchcycle.Therearealsodownsides,suchasdiseaseandfoodmildew.Forexample:Escherichiacoli(E.coli)cellscandivideevery12.5-20minutesunderoptimalgrowthconditions;inliquidmedium,theconcentrationofbacterialcellsisgenerally108-109cells/ml;Brevibacteriumglutamicum:Shakebottleseed→50tonsfermenter:thenumberofcellscanincrease3.2billiontimesin52hours.Usingthisfeatureofmicroorganismscanrealizeshort-periodandhigh-efficiencyproductioninthefermentationindustry.Forexample,whenproducingfreshyeast,itcanbeharvestedonceinalmost12hours,anditcanbeharvestedhundredsoftimesayear.

Tablethegenerationtimeanddailyproliferationrateofseveralmicroorganisms

*je staré jméno rodu Candida (Nostoc), což je stejný prokaryot jako bakterie.

4. Silná přizpůsobivost a snadná symutace

Extremelyflexibleandadaptable,withamazingadaptabilitytoextremeenvironments,andgeneticmaterialiseasytomutate.Moreimportantly,therearemanytypesofphysiologicalmetabolismandmetabolitesofmicroorganisms.Example:Microbeshavebeenfoundinsedimentaryrocksof10,000metersdeepsea,85kilometersabovethesky,128metersand427metersbelowtheformation.Thenumberofmicroorganisms,accordingto1972:

5. Široká distribuce a mnoho typů

Widedistributionareaandwidedistributionenvironment.Therearemanytypesofphysiologicalmetabolism,andtherearemanykindsofmetabolites.Moreimportantly,therearemanytypesofphysiologicalmetabolismandmetabolitesofmicroorganisms.Microorganismscanbefoundinanyenvironmentwhereotherorganismslive,andtherearealsomicroorganismsinextremeenvironmentswhereotherorganismscannotsurvive.

Forexample:Penicilliumchrysogenum(Penicilliumchrysogenum)produced20unitsofpenicillinpermilliliteroffermentationbrothin1943.Formorethan40years,throughtheunremittingeffortsofmicrobialgeneticbreedingworkersaroundtheworld,Thevariabilityofthebacteria'syieldhasgraduallyaccumulated,coupledwiththeimprovementoffermentationconditions,thefermentationlevelofadvancedcountriesintheworldhasexceeded50,000unitspermilliliter,orevencloseto100,000units.Thevariationofthequantitativetraitsofmicroorganismsandtheextentthatthebreedingcanincreasetheyieldisabsolutelyimpossibleintheworkofanimalandplantbreeding.Becauseofthis,almostallmicrobialfermentationfactoriesattachgreatimportancetostrainselectionandbreeding.

⒍Jednoduché mutace a vytváření mutací

Thesmallmicrobesandthelargespecificsurfaceareamakethemicrobeseasilyaffectedbyenvironmentalconditions.Certainnutritionalfactorschange,individualmicrobesconsciouslyandforcedtoproducegeneticstructuralchanges,resultinginvariants.Accordingtostatistics,theprobabilityofindividualmicrobialvariationisoneinamillionundernaturalconditions.Becausemicroorganismsarepronetoproducemutants,peopletakeadvantageofthecharacteristicsofmicroorganismstocarryoutmicrobialmutagenesis,andthenscreenformicroorganismstrainswithcertainpurposecharacteristics,suchasincreasedyield,auxotrophs,andsoon.

Role

1. Role v oběhu materiálu v přírodě

2.Čištění vzduchu a vody, čištění odpadních vod

3.Průmyslová a zemědělská výroba:bakterie,metabolity,metabolické aktivity

4. Příspěvky do věd o životě

Researchdirections

Microbiologydisciplines:Chinaisoneofthecountrieswiththerichestmicrobialresourcesintheworld.Researchonmicrobialresourcesreflectsthelevelofbasicmicrobiologyresearch,isthebasisfornationalinvestigations,resourceprotection,developmentandsustainableuse,andisthebasisforbiodiversityresearchandendangeredspeciesprotection.Italsoincludesmicrobialmolecularbiologyandbiotechnology.Thefoundationofthevariousbranchesofmicrobiology.Researchinthisfieldwillacceleratetheinvestigation,collection,andsystematicclassificationofmicrobiologicalresources,expandthecollectionofmicrobialstrainsandspecimens,andestablishamicrobialspeciesresourcebankinChina,makingitthelargestmicrobialstraincollectioncenterinAsiaandthelargestinAsiaHerbariumofFungi.Insystematicclassificationstudies,newmethods,newtechnologies,andnewideasaregenerallyintroduced,andbiologicaldiversity,systemevolution,andmicrobialecologyresearcharecarriedouttoprovidematerialsforlarge-scalescreeningoffunctionalsubstances.Amongthem,extremophilesandmicroorganismsthatareharmfulorbeneficialtocropsTheresearchhasgraduallybecomethecurrenthotresearchfield.

Themajorresearchdirectionsofmicrobiologyinclude:fungiandlichenology,microbialresources,taxonomy,systematics,diversity,populationgeneticsandevolution,molecularmechanismofcooperativemetabolism,environmentalmicrobiology,industrialmicrobiology,systemsBiotechnology,microbialphysiology,microbialphysiology,microbialmetabolism,microbialecology,microbialbiochemicalengineering,molecularvirology,molecularimmunology.

Specificapplication

Modernclinicalmicrobiologyisacross-disciplinethatcombinesclinicalmedicine,basicmedicineandpreventivemedicine.Itisalsooneoftheimportantandmaturespecialtiesinlaboratorymedicine..Thisemergingdisciplinerequiresmicrobiologistsandlaboratorytechnicianstoworktogether.Therearefourspecifictasks:(1)Makerapidandaccurateinspectionreportsonmicrobialspecimenstomeetclinicalneedsinatimelymanner;(2)conductrelevantantimicrobialdrugresistanceVarioustrialsondrugproperties,acceptconsultationsontherationalapplicationofantibacterialdrugs;(3)Closelyintegrateclinicalpractice,discuss,researchanddealwithissuesrelatedtoinfectiousdiseaseswithclinicians;(4)participateinthemanagementandrationalapplicationofantibacterialdrugsHospitalinfectionmonitoring,controlandmanagement.Thisrequiresclinicalmicrobiologiststonotonlycompletelaboratorywork,butalsocompleterelatedclinicalwork,andbecomestaffandconsultantsforinfectioncontrolandclinicalapplicationofantibacterialdrugs.

Pathogenicdiagnosis

1.Ensurethereliabilityofclinicalspecimens:Properspecimencollectionisthemostimportantstepinthediagnosisofinfectiousdiseases.Cliniciansarerequiredtocorrectlycollectclinicalspecimensthatcanrepresentthesiteofinfection,andwidelyuseprotectiveswabs,qualifiedcontainers,andtransportmediatopreventthemicrobesinthespecimensfromdyingduetotoxicsubstances.

2.Comprehensiveunderstandingofthenormalfloraofthebody:Understandingthenormalfloraofthehumanbodyisanecessaryprerequisiteforbacterialtesting.Itisnecessarytounderstandtheconcept,distributionandtypesofnormalflora,conditionalpathogensandendogenousinfections,dysbacteriosisanddualityIntheconceptofinfection,neithershouldthebacteriaisolatedfromallspecimensberegardedaspathogenicbacteria,norcantheendogenousinfectioncausedbynormalcolonizingbacteriabeeasilyletgo.

3.Threesetsandonecombination:Qualitative,quantitativeandlocalizationanalysisshouldbedoneduringseparationandidentification,andcombinedwiththeconditionofthedisease.Itisrequiredtodeterminetheinspectionprocedure,selecttheculturemediumandtheappropriateidentificationtestaccordingtothespecificconditionsoftheclinicalandspecimens.Itisnecessarytodeterminewhethertheisolatedbacteriaarepathogenicbacteria,conditionalpathogenicbacteria,ornon-pathogenicbacteria(qualitative).Atthesametime,theremustbearoughestimateofthenumberofbacteria,andsemi-quantitativeandquantitativecultureshouldbecarriedoutifnecessary.Thesignificanceofthebacteriaisolatedinthehumanbodypartshouldbejudgedbyreferringtothequalitativeandquantitativeanalysisofthemicroorganism;ifthebacteriaareisolatedinthesterilepart(suchasblood,cerebrospinalfluid),nomatterwhatkindofmicroorganismandthequantity,itisimportantMeaning(positioninganalysis).Whenperformingthe"threedeterminations"analysis,wemustcombinetheconditionandobservewhetheritisconsistentwiththecondition.

4.Providefastandaccuratepathogenicdiagnosis:Whencliniciansprovidepatientswithclinicaldiagnosisinformationandappropriateclinicalspecimens,andobtainepidemiologicaldataasmuchaspossible,conductmicrobiologicalexaminationsandantimicrobialdrugsusceptibilitytests,requiringtimely,Comprehensivelyanalyzethetestresults,provideclinicallyaccuratepathogenicdiagnosis,sothatthepatientcanbetreatedappropriately.Althoughtheisolationandidentificationofmicroorganismsisstillregardedasthegoldstandardforpathogenicdetection,thetraditionalbacteriologicalidentificationmethodbasedonthe"growthoflivingbacteria"isslowandcannotadapttoclinicalneeds.Itisrequiredtobebasedondirectinspectionofspecimens.,Suchasmorphology,staining,antigendetectionandnucleicaciddetection(nucleicacidhybridization,PCRand16SrRNAanalysis),detectionofpathogenicgenes(pathogenicislands,virulenceislands)anddrugresistancegenes.Trytomakeaquickdiagnosisasmuchaspossible.

5.Timelyreporting:Inordertoeffectivelytransformlaboratorydataintoclinicallyusefulinformation,pathogenicmicroorganismdiagnosisreportsshouldimplementathree-stagereportingsystem,thatis,whenasmearorculturepositiveresultappears,whenasensitivetestresultcomesout,andafterthefinalresultcomesoutReportinatimelymanner.

6.Strengthenqualitycontrolandincreaseinspectionitems:Theclinicalmicrobiologyroommuststrengthenqualitycontroltoensuretheinspectionqualityofvariousspecimens,provideareliablebasisfortheclinic,andmeetthevariousinspectionitemsrequiredbytheclinic.Thecurrentclinicalmicrobiologyroomshouldaddtestitemsbasedontheactualsituationoftheunit.Someitemsthattheclinicalrequirementspayattentiontoare:1)bacteriologicalscreeningandsemi-quantitativeculturemethodsofrespiratoryspecimens;2)detectionofatypicalpathogensoftherespiratorytract,includingchlamydiaandmycoplasmaAndLegionella;3)non-tuberculousmycobacteriacultureanddrugsusceptibility;4)detectionofspecialpathogensinimmunosuppressedororgantransplantpatients,suchascytomegalovirus,pneumocystiscarinii,etc.;5)pathogensofantibiotic-relateddiarrhea(MainlythedetectionofClostridiumdifficile);6)therapiddetectionanddrugsensitivitytestofinvasivefungi.

Zúčastněte se klinických konzultací

(1)Získejte klinické informace a vytvářejte včasné a přesné mikrobiologické zprávy

ClinicalinfectiousdiseasesManypathogensareofteninvolved,andnosingletestcandetectallpotentialpathogens.Therefore,clinicalinformationisanimportantreferenceforselectingtestmethods.Theclinicianshouldwritedownthespeculativediagnosisofthepatientwhenissuingthelaboratorytestform,sothatthelaboratorystaffcanchooseareasonabletestprocedureandtestmethodbasedonthis,andcanguidetheclinictocollectappropriatespecimenscorrectly;whenthelaboratorybeginstohaveexperimentalresults,Cliniciansmustbenotifiedintimesothattheycanre-evaluatethediagnosisandtreatmentplan.

(2)Interpretace a konzultace obtížných mikrobiálních zpráv

Manyinfectiousdiseases,especiallyhospitalinfections,havealargepathogenicspectrumanddrugsensitivityspectrum.Variety.Inthepast,raremicroorganismsfrequentlyappearedontheinspectionreport,andthemethodofdrugsusceptibilitytest,thetestedspecies,andtheinterpretationoftheresultshavealsochangedalot.Itisoftendifficultforclinicianstocorrectlyunderstandanduseclinicalmicrobiologicalexaminationdata.Inthefaceofthissituation,theclinicalmicrobiologydepartmentshouldactivelycommunicatewithclinicianstohelpsolvethedifficultiesofcliniciansininterpretingmicrobiologicaltestsanddrugsusceptibilityresultsreports.Pointouttheidentificationandjudgmentofnormalflora,contaminatedbacteriaandinfectiousbacteria;themeaningofrareorrarebacteria;possiblereasonswhencultureisnegative;judgmentcriteriaandlimitationsofdrugsusceptibilitytestresults;drugresistancecharacteristicsofspecialdrug-resistantbacteria,etc.,Andaddnotestothereportwhennecessary.

(3)Setupamikrobiolog jako zkratka mezi klinikou a mikrobiologickým oddělením

Manyforeignhospitalshaveconsultationswithclinicalmicrobiologistsorlaboratoryphysicians,Consultationsystem.Ifthereisaproblemwiththesmearatthebeginningofthetest,theexaminershouldcontactthecliniciantodiscussthemeaningofthesmear.Physiciansandtechniciansinthemicrobiologydepartmentlookattheresultsofcultureanddrugsensitivitytogethereveryday,especiallytheresultsofsputumcultureshouldbecheckedwithdirectsmears,andcontactthewardintimeifproblemsarefound.

Itisrecommendedthataphysicianintheclinicalmicrobiologydepartmentparticipateinthemorningmeetingoftheinfectiondepartment,respiratorydepartmentorICUofourhospitaleveryday,andreturntoreportthesituationoftheinfectedpatienttothephysician.Orsenddoctorsregularlytobringrelevanttestresultsandparticipateininfectionseminarsinsomeclinicaldepartmentstospecificallysolvetheinfectiontreatmentproblems.Forexample,toparticipateinseminarsintheICU,transplantationdepartment,oncologydepartment,neurosurgery,pediatrics,etc.,forpatientswithpositivebloodculture,positivecerebrospinalfluidtest,orsevereburninfection,themicrobiologistshouldtaketheinitiativetovisitthewardandparticipateinthediscussionoftreatmentoptions.Forpatientswithbacteremiaorsepsis,assistinfindingtheprimaryfocus.Clinicalmicrobiologistsshouldrecordtheiropinionsinthemedicalrecordsafterpatrollingpatients,anddiscusswiththeclinicalphysiciananddirectorifnecessary.Ifeachclinicaldepartmenthasinfectionproblems,youcancontacttheclinicalmicrobiologydepartmenttoinquireaboutthesignificanceofthetestreportorrequestaconsultation.TheDepartmentofMicrobiologyholdsaseminaroninfectioncasesonceaweektodiscussthesituationofinfectedpatients,exchangefindings,andexchangeopinionsfromtheDepartmentofClinicalMicrobiologywiththeclinicaldepartment.Microbiologistsshouldalsoparticipateindailyinspectionsandreceiveclinicalconsultationsonmicrobiologicalissues.

Participateinantibacterialdrugs

Therationalapplicationofantibacterialdrugstoreduceoravoidtheproductionofdrug-resistantstrainsisamajorprobleminthecurrentanti-infectionfield.Theclinicalmicrobiologyroomplaysanimportantroleintherationaluseofantibiotics.effect.

Firstofall,wemustpayattentiontothepathogenicdiagnosisofinfection.Beforeusingantibacterialdrugs,cliniciansshouldcollectmultiplemicrobiologyspecimensforbacterialcultureanddrugsusceptibilitytesting.Themicrobiologydepartmentprovidesrapidandaccuratebacterialtestinganddrugsusceptibilityresultsfortheclinic.Inaddition,closecontactbetweenmicrobiologistsandcliniciansandparticipationinthetreatmentofpatientsisalsoanimportantmethodtocontrolthedosageofantibiotics.Microbiologistsshouldparticipateinthehospitalpharmacycommittee,participateintheformulationofguidelinesfortheuseofantibiotics,educationandtraining,supervisionandinspections,etc.Inthisregard,thepracticeofHongKongQueenMaryHospitalisthattheinfectionmonitoringnurseisresponsibleforvisitingtheinfectedcases.Whenthemisuseorunreasonableapplicationofantibacterialdrugsisfound,thedirectorofthemicrobiologydepartmentwillgivefeedbacktothedean,thedirectoroftherelevantdepartmentandtheparties,andachievebetterresults.

Participateinthemonitoring,controlandmanagementofnosocomialinfections

China’s"NosocomialInfectionManagementRegulations"clearlystatesthatthelaboratoryshouldperformthefollowingdutiesinthemanagementofnosocomialinfections:ResponsibleforroutinemicrobiologyofnosocomialinfectionsTocarryoutthecultivation,isolationandidentificationofpathogenicmicroorganismsofhospitalinfection,drugsusceptibilitytestinganddrugresistancemonitoringofspecialpathogens,regularsummaryandanalysis,feedbacktorelevantdepartments,andannouncementtothewholehospital;whennosocomialinfectionsareprevalentoroutbreaks,relevantInspectionwork.

Theroleofclinicalmicrobiologylaboratoryinthemonitoring,controlandmanagementofnosocomialinfectionsincludes:(1)strengtheningpathogenicmonitoringasthebasisfordeterminingnosocomialinfection;(2)strengtheningmonitoringofdrugresistancetoGuidetherationaluseofantibiotics;(3)Strengthenmicrobiologicalinvestigationsoftheenvironmentandequipmenttomeettherequirementsofhygieneindicators;(4)Ensurethequalityofdisinfectionandsterilizationinthehospital;(5)PassepidemiologicalinvestigationsandbacteriologicaltypingExperiment,tracethesourceofinfectionandcontrolit.

(1)Posílení dohledu

Theclinicalmicrobiologydepartmentisaninevitablememberofthehospitalinfectioncontrolcommittee,andmicrobiologicaltestingplaysanimportantroleinthemonitoringofhospitalinfections.Ifahospitalinfectionproblemisfoundintheclinicalmicrobiologicalexamination,itisnecessarytocontactthehospitalinfectioncontroldepartment,thewarddoctorandtheheadnurseintime,andpayattentiontothedevelopmenttrend.Somespecialdrug-resistantbacteriainhospitalinfections,suchasGRE,MRSA,ESBL-producingenterobacteriaceae,etc.,areoftenspreadthroughcross-infection.AspergillusandLegionellaareoftenpresentinairconditioners,watersupplysystems,andatomizationdevicesandcauseinfections.Routinemonitoringofthesourceofthesepathogenicbacteriaandremindingclinicalattentioncanusuallyeffectivelypreventthespreadandsavealotofanti-infectioncosts.

(2)Nozokomiální infekceVzdělávání a školení

TheclinicalmicrobiologydepartmentshouldparticipateinRelevantpersonnelcarryouteducationandtrainingofnosocomialinfections.Forexample,explaintherequirementsandprecautionsforthecollection,storage,andtransportationofclinicalmicrobialspecimens,whatpreparationsshouldbemadebypatientsbeforespecimencollection,whattimeandlocationshouldbeselectedforspecimencollection,howmanytimesaday,howmuchtocollect,andsamplinglocationExplainaseriesofissuessuchashowtodisinfect;trainthecommonhumanbody'snormalflora,colonizingbacteria,contaminatingbacteriaandinfectiousbacteria;thedetectionofvariousbacterialdrug-resistantenzymesanditsmeaningandthesignificanceintheselectionofantibioticsRegularcommunicationwiththeclinicandsoon.Variousmethodscanbeused,suchaslectures,seminars,briefings,posters,andevenparticipationinwardrounds.Itcanalsobeintegratedintocontinuingeducationandtrainingprogramsforhospitalinfectionmanagement.

(3)Účastnit se řízení dezinfekce a izolace

Thecorrectandscientificimplementationofdisinfectionandisolationtechnologyisveryimportantforthepreventionandcontrolofnosocomialinfections.Correctguidance,Supervision,disinfectionandisolationisalsooneofthetasksoftheclinicalmicrobiologydepartment.Whenanoutbreakofnosocomialinfectionoraspecialdrug-resistantbacterialinfectionoccurs,clinicalmicrobiologyprofessionalsshouldparticipateintheformulationofdisinfectionandisolationmeasures,andprovideprofessionalmicrobiologicalopinionsonrelatedpersonnelmanagementandwastedisposal.

(4)Pravidelné uvolňováníBakteriální rezistenceVýsledky monitorování

FormanyinfectionsThechoiceofantibacterialdrugsfordiseaseisempirical.However,empiricalmedicationalsoneedsthesupportofevidence-basedmedicineandepidemiologicaldata.ItisrecommendedtosaveallpathogenicbacteriaisolationanddrugsusceptibilitydatawithWHONETsoftware,regularlypublishbacterialdrugresistancemonitoringresults,statisticallyanalyzethedistributionanddrugresistancestatusofcommonpathogensinkeydepartmentssuchasICUatanytime,andchooseantibioticsforclinicalexperiencetoimprovesevereinfectionsThesuccessrateoftreatmentisveryhelpful.

(5)Kontrola pomocí technologie molekulárního typováníNozokomiální infekce

CommonlyusedmoleculartypingtechnologiesincludePFGE,RAPD,etc..Microbiologylaboratoriessetupmoleculartypinglaboratoriestoroutinelytypedrug-resistantbacteriathataremoreharmfulandeasytospread,whichisofgreatsignificancefortimelydetectionandcontrolofpathogenicbacteria.Thepracticeofsomeforeignhospitalsistocarryoutmoleculartypingofuncommondrug-resistantbacteriasuchasVREassoonastheyarediscovered.Accordingtothegenotyping,thepossibilityandscopeoftheepidemicwillbejudgedandcorrespondingmeasureswillbetakentocontroltheinfection.Forexample,ahospitalclassified19VREstrainsisolatedfrom16patientswithin2months,andtheresultsshowedthat14ofthemwereofonetypeandtheotherswereofonetype,whichhighlysuggestedtheprevalenceofVRE.Afterinvestigationandanalysis,itwasfoundthat1411ofthepatientshaddirectcontact.Basedontheseanalyses,targetedcontrolmeasuresweretakentostoptheinfection.Inotherhospitals,Klebsiellapneumoniae,Staphylococcusepidermidis,Staphylococcushemolyticus,Serratiamarcescensandotherinfectionepidemicshavebeencontrolledthroughmoleculartyping.Accordingtostatistics,thecostofestablishingamoleculartypinglaboratory(equipmentandpersonnel)inthemicrobiologylaboratoryis$180,050,andtheannualmoleculartyping-relatedexpenditureis$400,000.Assumingthatallhospitals(theUnitedStates)routinelyperformmoleculartyping,theexperiment-relatedcostsamounttoUS$2billion.,Butthesavedcostoftreatinghospitalinfectionswillbemorethan5times(10billionyuan).

Pojmenování

Klasifikace jednotek mikroorganismů: svět, kmen, třída, řád, čeleď, rod, druh

Druhy jsou nejzákladnějšími taxonomickými jednotkami, každá Po taxonomii mohou být podkmeny, podtřídy, podřádky, podrodiny...

Vezměte S.cerevisiaejakopříklad,jeho staxonomická poziceje:

Kindom:Fungalkingdom

Phyllum:Houba

Třída:Ascomycete

Řád: Endospora

Rodina:Endomyces

Rod:Saccharomyces

Druh:Saccharomycescerevisiae

Species:Itisabasictaxonomicunit;itisthegeneraltermforalargegroupofstrainsthatarehighlysimilarinphenotypiccharacteristics,closelyrelatedtoeachother,andaresignificantlydifferentfromotherspeciesinthesamegenus.①Strainreferstoanypurebredpopulationandallitsdescendants(agroupofpurebreddescendantsthatoriginatedfromacommonancestorandmaintainthecharacteristicsoftheancestor)fromanindependentsinglecellmultiplication.Therefore,apurecultureofamicroorganismfromdifferentsourcescanbecalledastrainofthestrain.Thestrainemphasizesageneticallypurelineage.Forexample:TwostrainsofEscherichiacoli:EscherichiacoliBandEscherichiacoliK12

Strainnotation:Ifthespeciesisthebasicunitoftaxonomy,thenthestrainisactuallythebasicunitofapplication,becausethesameDifferentstrainsofstrainswillhavegreatdifferencesanddifferencesinthetypesofenzymesortheyieldsofmetabolites!②Subspeciesorvarieties:reclassificationwithinspecies.

Whendifferentstrainswithinacertainspecieshaveafewobviousandstablevariationcharacteristicsorgenetictraits,buttheyarenotenoughtodifferentiateintonewspecies,thesestrainscanbesubdividedintotwoormoreSmalltaxa-subspecies.

Varietyissynonymouswithsubspecies.Becausetheword"variety"caneasilycauseconfusioninthemeaningoftheword,theterm"variety"hasnotbeenusedsince1976.Themutantstrainsobtainedinthelaboratoryareusuallycalledsubspecies.

Forexample:E.colik12(wildtype)doesnotrequirespecialaa,andafterlaboratorymutation,adefectivetypeofaacanbeobtainedfromk12,whichiscalledasubspeciesofE.colik12.③Form:oftenreferstothesubdivisionbelowsubspecies.Whenthetraitdifferencesbetweendifferentstrainswithinthesamespeciesorthesamesubspeciesarenotenoughtobeclassifiedintonewsubspecies,theycanbesubdividedintodifferenttypes.Forexample:Accordingtothedifferenceofantigeniccharacteristics,itisdividedintodifferentserotypes.

Nomenclatureofmicroorganisms:Therearetwokindsofnamesofmicroorganisms:commonnamesandscientificnames.Suchas:redbreadmold-Neurosporacrassa;Pseudomonasaeruginosa-Pseudomonasaeruginosa.Scientificname-thescientificnameofmicroorganisms,itisnamedinaccordancewiththerulesdrawnupbytheInternationalCommitteeonClassificationofMicroorganisms.ThescientificnameiscomposedofLatinwordsorLatinizedforeignwords.Therearetwomethodsfornamingscientificnames,thedouble-namemethodandthetriple-namemethod.①Doublenamemethod:scientificname=genusname+speciesname+(firstnamedcelebrity)+currentcelebrity+namedyearGenericname:Latinnounsoradjectivesusedasnouns,singular,capitalizedfirstletter,indicatingthemaincharacteristicsofmicroorganisms,Constructedbymicroorganisms,shapesornamedbyscientists.Speciesname:Latinadjectiveswithlowercaseinitials,whicharesecondarycharacteristicsofmicroorganisms,suchasmicrobialpigment,shape,source,orscientist'sname,etc.Example:Escherichiacoli(Migula)CastellanietChalmers1919

StaphylococcusaureusRosenbach1884Whenreferringtoacertaingenusofmicroorganisms,butnotspecificallyreferringtoacertainspecies(orunspecifiedname)ofthegenus,Youcanaddsp.orssp.(representingthesingularandpluralformsofspeciesabbreviations)afterthegenusname.

Například:Saccharomycessp.Představujedruh v roduSaccharomyces.Název kmene:Přidat čísla,názvymístnebosymbolyzanázevdruhu.Příklad:BacillussubtilisAS1.389AS=AcademiaSinica

BacillussubtilisBF7658BF=Beifang

ClostridiumacetobutylicumATCC824ClostridiumacetobutylicumATCC824>

ATCC=AmericanTypeCultureCollectionAmericanTypeCultureCollection

Whenascientificnamehasappearedbeforeinthearticle,thegenusnamecanbeabbreviatedinto1~3lettersintheback.

Příklad:Escherichiakolika může být zkrácena na E.coli

StaphylococcusaureuscanbeabbreviatedtoS.aureus②Threenamingmethods:usedtonamesubspecies,atthistimeinthegenusandspeciesnameAddasubsp.afterit,andthenaddthesubspeciesname(italics).Forexample:Bacillusthuringiensissubsp.galleriaBacillusthuringiensissubsp.Grifola