Countryname
LiuXiuistheninthgrandsonofthegreatancestorLiuBangoftheHanDynasty.HeisadescendantoftheHanfamily.Theeast,soitiscalledtheEasternHanDynasty.TheWesternHanDynastywasalsocalledtheLaterHanDynastyaftertheformerEasternHanDynasty.
History
TheLastNewChaos
AttheendoftheWesternHanDynasty,socialcontradictionsintensifiedunprecedentedly.AfterWangMangestablishedthenewdynastyintheHanDynasty,hesuccessivelypromulgatedaseriesofnewpoliciessuchas"WangTianOrder"and"PrivateOrder"inanefforttoalleviatetheincreasinglyintensifiedsocialcontradictions.However,WangMang'srestructuringtouchedthevestedinterestsofthetycoonsandmanyupper-levelbureaucrats,andwasmetwithfierceoppositionandrejection,coupledwiththeidealizationofreformandtheblindworshipofancienttimes.Intheend,itbackfiredandintensifiedsocialconflicts.Inaddition,floodsanddroughtscontinuedtooccurinthelastyearsoftheNewDynasty,andfinallytheGreenForestandChimeiUprisingbrokeoutduringtheXinmangtianfengReign.Allofasudden,theQuartetrespondedandtheworldwasinchaos.Finally,thistop-downself-helpreformbythefeudalrulingclassendedinfailure.
LiuXiuistheninthgrandsonofLiuBang,theemperoroftheHanDynasty.HisfatherLiuQinwasthemagistrateofJiyangCounty(nowLankao,Henan)andNandunCounty.AftertheChimeiandLvlinuprisingsbrokeout,inthethird(22years)ofthenewdynasty,LiuXiuandhiseldestbrotherLiuYanweiresumedtheruleoftheLiusurname.".InWangMang’sfouryears(23years),LiuXiudestroyedtheXinMangarmyinonefellswoopintheBattleofKunyang,markingtheexhaustionofthemilitarypowerthatXinMangreliedontomaintainhisrule.Inthesameyear,theLvlinArmybrokethroughXuchang,WangMangdiedatthehandsoftherebels,andwascompletelydestroyed.AfterthefirstemperorLiuXuanbecamethecapitalofLuoyang,LiuXiuwassenttoFuzhouCounty,HebeiProvince.NaipaoWanglang,thepowerfullandlordofHebeiledhisclan,guests,andchildrentojoinhimsuccessively,whichmadehimafirmfootholdinHebei.
Sincethen,LiuXiurefusedtolistentotheorderofthechangeoftheregime.Intheautumnofthesameyear,thepeasantuprisingarmyofTongmaandotherministrieswasforcedtolandandmergedinandgraduallybecameindependent.Soon,therewasacompletebreakwiththereformedregime.
ThefoundingoftheEasternHanDynasty
Thefirstthreeyears(25years)InJune,theRedEyeArmyadoptedLiuPenzi,descendantoftheHanDynasty,astheemperor,andwasknownasthefoundingoftheworld.emperor.Onthe22nddayofthesamemonth(August5,25),LiuXiuzaihuan(nowBaixiangCounty,HebeiProvince)Nanqianqiuting50%(nowHebeiWulipu)ascendedthethroneandproclaimedtheemperor,thecountrynameisstill"Han",thehistoryisknownasEmperorGuangwuoftheHanShizu,changedtoYuanJianwu.Atthattime,theGuanxiwasnamedtheEmperorofCopperHorse.
AfterLiuXiusetupthecapitalofLuoyang,hesetNanyangashisaccompanyingcapitalandbegantheEasternHanUnificationWar.HesuccessivelyeliminatedtheRedEyebrowArmy,whichwasentrenchedinGuanzhongandclaimedtobeamillion,andseizedtherulerofLongyouandthekingofWeixiaoandPanzhixi.Therearedozensofseparatistforces,suchasGongsunShuofShu.Afterelevenyearsofconquests,LiuXiufinallywipedoutthelastseparatistforcetobecomeafamilyemperorSunshuin36AD.Sincethen,afternearly19yearsofdisputesandmeleeinthelastyearsofXinMang,Chinahasonceagainbeenunified.
GuangwuZhongxing
Strengtheningcentralization
LiuXiuzhiIntheWesternHanDynasty,therewerehistoricallessonssuchastheadministrationofoptionministers,foreignrelativesusurpingthecountry,andlocalpower.Firstofall,theyworkedtorectifythegovernmentofofficials,strengthenthecentralizationofpower,andpreventthedictatorshipofheroes,clankingsandforeignrelatives.Althoughtheheroesareappointedprincesandgeneroushonorsaregranted,theyareprohibitedfrominterferinginpoliticalaffairs.Therearealsomanyrestrictionsonthepoweroftheprincesandrelatives.
LiuXiutook"Judotogovernthecountry"asthemainconcept,andretiredfromheroesandliteraryofficials,sothatmostofthefoundinggeneralsenjoyedpreferentialtreatmentasLiehoureturnedtotheirhometownsanddidnotparticipateinpolitics.Atthattime,DengYu,LiTong,andJiaFuweretheonlyoneswhowereabletoparticipateinmajorpoliticalaffairs.ThesepeoplearealsowellawareofLiuXiu'sthoughts,"andbludgeon(eliminate)Jiabing,anddenyConfucianism"toavoidsuspicion.LiuXiuismorewaryofministers.AtthetimeofJianwu,thegreatSitupeoplesufferedmanyblows.Forexample,FuZhandismissedhisofficeduetoaccidents,HanXinwasforcedtocommitsuicidebecausehehadjuststeppedawayfromoffice,OuyangSheandDaiShewerebothimprisonedanddiedbecauseoftheircrimes.Responsible".
ThereasonwhyLiuXiudoesthisistoimprovetheautocraticimperialpower.LiuXiuhasstrictercontrolovertheclankingsandrelatives.(48years)inthetwenty-fourthyearofJianwu,LiuXiureiteratedthelawoftheAfuvassalintheWesternHanDynasty,prohibitingthekingsfromcommunicatingwithguestsandformingpartiesforprivateinterests.In52AD,hesearchedforprincesandguests,"thousandsofpeoplesittingdead".AfterEmperorHanMingcametothethrone,hecontinuedtoreinvigoratelargeprisons,andtheaffiliationwasextremelywide.
Reformtheofficialsystem
Intheadministrativesystem,LiuXiufurthersuppressedthethreepublicThepowersmadethegovernmentaffairsofthewholecountrygothroughtheShangshutai,andfinallytheemperor.Ontheotherhand,itstrengthenedthesupervisionsystemtoimprovetheauthorityandstatusoftheofficialsoftheassassins,suchasYushiZhongcheng,SiLiXiaowei,andtheMinistryofAssassins.Inaddition,morethan400countiesweremergedacrossthecountry,reducingthenumberofofficialstoone-tenth.
Developingtheeconomy
Aftertheworldissettled,LiuXiuattachesgreatimportancetotherestorationofproductionandpeople’slivesAnddevelopment,begantofocusondevelopingproduction,improvingpeople'slivelihood,andrestoringnationalstrength.LiuXiualsotookmanymeasurestostabilizepeople'slivelihoodandrestorethedilapidatedsocialeconomy.InthesixthyearofJianwu,theoldsystemofthirty-onetaxwasrestored.TheburdenoffeudalleasesandservitudesintheearlyEasternHanDynastywaslessthanthatinthelateWesternHanDynastyandduringthewar.Heissuedordersninetimestoreleaseslaves,orimprovetheirlegalstatus,sothatalargenumberofslaveswereexemptedfrombeingslaves,andtherefugeesreturnedtothecountrysidetopromoteproduction.Duringhisreign,theproductionandlifedestroyedbythewarwerequicklyrestored,andthepopulationandthenumberofcultivatedfieldsincreasedgreatly.Itwascalled"GuangwuZhongxing"inhistory.
InthesecondyearofJianwu(26years),EmperorGuangwuorderedtherectificationofofficials,andsetupsixShangshupeopletobeinchargeofnationalaffairs,furtherweakeningthepowerofthethreegongs(Taiwei,Situ,Sikong);Atthesametime,wewillchecktheland,setnewtaxes,revitalizeagriculture,andgraduallystabilizepeople'slives.AftertheEasternHanDynasty"GuangwuZhongxing",thesocialeconomyhasrecoveredtoacertainextent,theculturehasfurtherdeveloped,theTaixueisabundant,andtheacademicatmosphereisstrong.DuringtheEasternHandynasty,farmersinvariousregionswhocontrolledalargeamountoflandandfarming,establishedlargefarms,developedaself-sufficientfarmeconomy,andevenpossessedprivatearmedforces,allofwhichbecamesocialinstabilityfactors.
TheRuleofMingZhang
AfterEmperorGuangwudied,EmperorMingofHancametothethrone.OrderDouGuandGengBingtoconquertheNorthernHuns.TheHanarmyenteredtheTianshanMountains,attackedKingYan,beheadedmorethanathousandlevels,andchasedtothePuLeiSea(nowXinjiangBarkunLake)andoccupiedYiwu.Therefore,allthecountriesintheWesternRegionssentchildrentoserve,andinthesecondyeartheywererestoredtotheProtectorateoftheWesternRegions,so"theWesternRegionshavebeenextinctforsixty-fiveyears,anditistherestorationofTongYan."However,soonafterYanqiandQiucirebelledandcapturedtheWesternRegionsProtectorate,EmperorZhangoftheHanDynastydidnotwanttodismisstheProtectoratebecausetheWesternRegionsweretiredofChina.
InthetwelfthyearofYongping(69years),itwaslocatedintheAilaocountryinthenorthernpartofYunnanandMyanmar.ThecountrywasattachedtotheEasternHanDynasty,andEmperorHanMingestablishedYongchangCountyinitsplace.ThelandofAilaostartsfromtheAilaoMountainintheeast,totheNorthMinjinMountaininMyanmarinthewest,tothesouthernborderofXishuangbannainthesouth,andtothesouthernfootoftheHimalayasinthenorth.TheAilaoareainitiallyestablishedthescopeofChina'sruleofYunnan.
Inaddition,withthenormaldevelopmentofforeignexchanges,BuddhismbegantospreadintoChinaattheendoftheWesternHanDynasty.EmperorMingheardthatthereweregodsintheWesternRegions,whosenamewasBuddha,sohesentenvoystoTianzhutoobtainhisbooksandShamen.,AndestablishedChina'sfirstBuddhisttemple,theWhiteHorseTemple,inLuoyang.IntheMingemperor'sworld,theofficialgovernancewasrelativelyclearandclear,andtheterritorywasstable.Hehasrepeatedlyissuededictstorecruitandcarefortherefugees,grantingthepoorpeoplewiththecountypublicland,loaningtogrowfood,andbuildingwaterconservancyprojects.Historicalrecordsrecordthatthepeoplesettledtheirbusinessesatthattime,andthehouseholdregistrationwasbreeding.InthelastyearsofEmperorGuangwu,theregisteredpopulationofthewholecountrywasmorethan21million,andbytheendofEmperorHanZhang,thepopulationhadreachedmorethan43million.
DuringthereignofthetwoemperorsofMingzhang,hefollowedLiuXiu’slegacyrulesandstrictlyguardedagainstforeignministers;herepeatedlyissuededictstorecruitandcarefortherefugees,rescuedwidows,widows,lonelinessandpoorpeopleninetimesbeforeandafter;repairedtheBianCanalandeliminatedtheWesternHanDynastySincethePingEmperor,HeBianhasbeendecisive;hemanagedtheWesternRegions,thenbroketherightarmoftheXiongnu,andrestoredtheWesternRegionsDuhuMansionandWujiCaptain.Thehistorycontains"Theworldispeaceful,thepeoplearewealthy",anditiscalled"MingZhangZhizhi".
ControversybetweenQiandHuan
TheappointmentofforeignrelativeswasthefirstintheHanZhangdiperiod.AfterthedeathofEmperorHanZhang,HanheEmperorLiuZhaosucceededtothethroneattheageoften,andEmpressDowagerDoucametothecourt.TheQueenMotherDoureliedonherrelatives,andtheDouclanbegantodominatepower.InthefourthyearofYongyuan,theEmperorHanandtheeunuchswipedouttheDouclan.Heneverneglectedpoliticalaffairsafterhetookoffice.Therefore,hewasknownas"workandhumilityhavetheend."Donotviolatethepeasantperiod,recruitthewisemen,alsoadvocatelenientpunishmentinthelegalsystem,surrendertheHunsinmilitaryanddiplomacy,andappointedBanChaotopacifythecountriesoftheWesternRegions,whichledtothepeakoftheEasternHanDynasty'snationalpower./b>".ThenumberoflandreclamationinthefirstyearofYuanxing(105years)reached7.32millionhectares,withapopulationof53.25million.
AfterthedeathofEmperorHanHe,EmperorHanShangsucceededtothethrone,andthepowerwascontrolledbytheDengfamilyrepresentedbyEmpressDowagerDeng’selderbrotherDengYan.EmperorShangdiedinAugustinthefirstyearofYanping(106).TheDengfamilysupportedEmperorHan'antosucceedtothethrone.AfterthedeathofQueenMotherDeng,EmperorHan'antookchargeandwipedouttheDengfamily,butfailedtopreventotherrelativesfromdictatingpower.
AfterEmperorHan'andied,LiuYisupportedtheYanfamilyanddiedofillnessmorethantwohundreddaysafterhetookthethrone.Soonafter,theYanclanwaswipedoutbytheeunuch.TheeunuchsupportedtheHanShunEmperor,andtheHanShunEmperorcontinuedtolethisrelativesgofree.Asaresult,theLiang'sQiclanhadmorethan20yearsofexclusivepower.LiangJievenreachedthepeakofthepowerofhisrelatives,andtheEmperorChongoftheHanDynastyandtheEmperoroftheHanZhiwerefirmlycontrolledbyhim.EmperorZhidioftheHanDynastywaspoisonedbecauseofTongyanWuji,andEmperorHuanoftheHanDynastyascendedthethrone.
In159AD,EmperorHuanofHanandeunuchstogetherpunishedtheLiangfamily.EmperorHanHuanappointedthethirteeneunuchswhohadconspiredwithhimasmarquises,andhewaseunuchsinpolitics.Eunuchsweremorecorruptthantheirrelatives,causingdissatisfactionamongscholar-officials,whojoinedforceswiththeirforeignrelativestofightagainsttheeunuchs.Thefiercestrugglebetweenthetwosideseventuallyledtotwopartyslams,andallhonestscholar-officialswereexcludedfromthecourt.Sincethen,theEasternHanDynastyhasbeenindeclineandisonthevergeofextinction.AfterHanLingdisucceededtothethrone,hetrustedtheeunuchmorethanHanHuan.TheEmperorofHanLingappointedthecourttotheeunuch,whichmadethepoliticalsituationworse.AftertheoutbreakoftheYellowTurbanUprising,theparty'sshackleswerelifted.
GoingtoDemise
In184AD,theYellowTurbanUprisingbrokeout,andthedecadentcourtwasunabletoquelltherebellion.UndertheimpactoftheYellowTurbanArmy,theprecariousEasternHanDynastydecidedtodrinkpoisontoquenchthirstandorderedthecountiestorecruittheirowntroops.AlthoughthedefensesuccessfullysuppressedtheYellowTurbanUprising,itmadethelocalprefecturesandcountyofficialssupporttheirsoldiers.In188AD,LiuYansaidthattheQuartetwastroublesome.Thereasonwasthatthegovernor'spowerwaslight,sohechangedpartofthegovernortothestatepastoralist,makingthegovernorbecomethechiefofficialofastate'smilitaryandgovernmentandthesuperioroftheprefect..Theestablishmentofstateanimalhusbandryandthepromotionofstategovernor'spowerplantedthebaneofthewarlord'sseparatistruleinthelateEasternHanDynasty.
In189AD,theEmperorofHanLingdiedandLiuBian,theEmperoroftheHanDynasty,ascendedthethrone.HisrelativeHeJinguanworshipedthegeneralandcontrolledthecourt,aimingtoeradicatethepowerofeunuchs,buttheQueenMotherobjected,andthescholar-officialleaderYuanShaoputforwardaproposaltoletDongZhuooftheNorthwestArmyenterthecapital,forcingtheQueenMothertoagree.HeJinagreedtoYuanShao'ssuggestion.However,whenthingsleaked,theeunuchactedfirstandkilledHeJin.Uponhearingthenews,YuanShao,whowasintheXiyuanArmyatthetime,immediatelyledhisarmyintothepalaceandmassacredtheeunuchs.TheeunuchZhangRanghijackedtheHanShaodiandescaped,chasingsoldiers,andZhangRangcommittedsuicide.WhenDongZhuoledhisarmytoLuoyang,thepoweroftheforeignrelativesandtheeunuchwereallgone,leadingDongZhuotocontrolthecentralgovernment.
Inordertoestablishprestige,DongZhuoabolishedtheEmperoroftheHanDynastyandmadetheEmperorLiuXie,thekingofChenliu,theEmperorofHanDynasty.In190,theEmperorofHanDynastyandEmpressDowagerHewerekilledbyDongZhuo.DongZhuomovedthecapitaltoChang'anwithEmperorXian.DongZhuo'sperverseactionsarouseddissatisfactionamonglocalprincesintheCentralPlains.TheyraisedtroopsinthenameofChasingDongandelectedYuanShaoastheirleader,formingtheKwantungAlliedForcestodefeatDongZhuo.However,theKwantungArmy’sinternalconflictsandthebreakupoftheAlliedforcesendedinfailure.InthefirstyearofChuping(190years),therebellionofDongZhuobrokeoutagain,andthepoweroftheimperialcourtcametoanend,whichopenedthepreludetothewarlords'meleeattheendoftheEasternHanDynasty.Atthesametime,localwarlordsfromalloverthecountryhaveattackedeachothertoincreasetheirownstrength,andtheprestigeofthecentralgovernmenthasdisappeared.
In192AD,MinisterWangYuninstigatedDongZhuo'sgeneral,LuBu,tocooperateinthemurderofDongZhuo,orderanamnesty,andDongZhuo'srebellionended.ButsoonaftertheDongZhuoshogunate'sgeneralsLiYuandGuoBangcameback,WangYunwaskilled,andtheEasternHancourtonceagainlostcontrol.In195AD,therewasaninternalfightbetweenLiYuandGuoBang.HanXianEmperorLiuXieandhisgroupofofficialsfledtoLuoyang,butHanXianEmperorfellintoanembarrassingsituation.InthefirstyearofJian'an(196),CaoCaohijackedEmperorXianoftheHanDynastytomovehiscapitaltoXuchang,afterwhichCaoCaograduallytookcontroloftheimperialpower.In220years,CaoPiusurpedtheHanDynastyandestablishedLuoyangasthecapital.Hechangedthecountry'snameto"Wei",whichwascalled"CaoWei"inhistory.AftertheendoftheEasternHanDynasty,ChinesehistoryenteredtheThreeKingdomsperiod.
Territory
TerritoryandTerritory
DetailedmapoftheadministrativedivisionsoftheEasternHanDynasty(17photos)
WestHanDynastyEmperorZhaodiShiyuan5Intheyear(82yearsago)ZhenfanCountyandLintunCountyweremergedintoLelangCountyandXuantuCountytothesixthyearofEmperorGuangwu’sJianwu(30years)AbandonedRidgeEast.TheruleofHainanwaslostduetotheabandonmentofZhuyaCountyandDan'erCountyinthethirdyearofYuanDynasty(46BC)byEmperorHanandYuan.XianglinCountyofNichinanCountyinJiaozhouwasseparatedbyLinyiinthesecondyearofEmperorYongheoftheHanDynasty(137years).Inthetwenty-fourthyearofJianwu,(48years)thesouthernXiongnuwereattachedandplacedinHetao.Inthetwenty-sixthyearofJianwu,(50years)theXiongnuZhonglangwassetup.WillguardthesouthernHunsdescended.Inthetwenty-fifthyearofthefoundingofWuhua,(49years)Wuhuanledhissubordinatesandmovedinlandtothenorthofthenortherncounties.WuhuanschoolcaptainwasplacedunderthesupervisionofWuhuanandledXianbei.The12thyearofEmperorYongpingoftheHanMingDynasty(69years)wasattachedtotheAilao,whichwaslocatedinYongchangCounty,andthesouthwestwasexpandedtotheDayingjiangarea.InthesixthyearofEmperorYongyuanoftheHanDynasty(94),theWesternRegionswerecompletelycalmeddown,andthewesternboundaryreachedtheseashore.Administrativedivisions
DivisionLiXiaoweiDepartment | Luoyang | NortheastLuoyang,Henan | CentralShaanxi,westernandnorthernHenan,andsouthwesternShanxi | JingZhaoYin(12Counties)ZuoFengyi(13)YouFufeng(15) HongnongCounty(9)HanoiCounty(18)HenanCounty(21)HadongCounty(20) | ||||
Jizhou | HanCounty | NorthofBaixiangCounty,Hebei | CentralandsouthernHebei | WeiCounty(15)JuluCounty(15)BohaiCounty(8)ChangshanCountry(13) ZhongshanCountry(13)AnpingCountry(13)HejianCountry(11)QingheCountry(11)ZhaoCountry(5) | ||||
Youzhou | Jixian | Beijing | NorthernHebei,MostofLiaoning,thenorthernpartoftheKoreanPeninsula | ZhuoCounty(7)DaiCounty(11)ShangguYin(8)YuyangCounty(9)YoubeipingCounty(4) LiaoxiCounty(5)LiaodongCounty(11)XuantuCounty(6)LelangCounty(18)GuangyangCounty(5)LiaodongCounty(6) | ||||
Bingzhou | Jinyang | SouthwestTaiyuan,Shanxi p> | CentralShanxi,northernpartofShanxi,Shaanxi,Ningxia,andthefirstpartofMongolia | TaiyuanCounty(16)ShangdangCounty(13)XiheCounty(13)WuyuanCounty(10)YunzhongCounty(11)DingxiangCounty(5)YanmenCounty(14)ShuofangCounty(6)ShangCounty(10) | ||||
Liangzhou | GuZang | WuweiCity,Gansu | GansuandmostofNingxia | LongxiCounty(11)HanyangCounty(13)WuduCounty(7)JinchengCounty(10)AndingCounty(8)BeidiCounty(6)WuweiCounty(14)ZhangyeCounty(8)JiuquanCounty(9)DunhuangCounty(6)ZhangyeCountry(5)JuyanCountry(1) | ||||
Yizhou | LuoCounty | SichuanGuanghan | SichuanandmostofYunnan,partofGuangdongandShaanxi | HanzhongCounty(9)BaCounty(14)GuanghanCounty(11)ShuCounty(11)QianweiCounty(9)ZhangdaoCounty(16)YuexianCounty(14)YizhouCounty(17)YongchangCounty(8)GuanghanCounty(3)QianweiCounty(2) | ||||
Cochin | LongEditing p> | EastHanoi,Vietnam | Guangdong,southernGuangxiandotherregions | NamhaeCounty(7)UlimCounty(11)CangwuCounty(11)JiaozhiCounty(12)HepuCounty(5)JiuzhenCounty(5)NichinanCounty(5) | ||||
Jingzhou | Hanshou | NortheastofChangdeCity,Hunan td> | Hubei,HunanandpartofShaanxi,Henan,Guizhou,andGuangdong | NanyangCounty(37)SouthCounty(17)JiangxiaCounty(14)LinglingCounty(13)WulingCounty(12)GuiyangCounty(11)ChangshaCounty(13) | ||||
Yangzhou | Liyang,Shouchun,Hefei | HeCountyofAnhui,ShouCountyofAnhui,NorthwestofHefeiofAnhui | ThreeprovincesofJiangxi,Fujian,ZhejiangandJiangsuandsouthernAnhui | JiujiangCounty(14)DanyangCounty(16)YuzhangCounty(21)WuCounty(13)KuaijiCounty(14)LujiangCounty(14) | ||||
Yuzhou | Qiaoxian | BoCounty,Anhui | EasternHenan,WesternAnhui | YingchuanCounty(17)RunanCounty(37)LiangGuo(8)Peiguo(21)ChenGuo(9)LuGuo(6) | ||||
Xuzhou | Tanxian | ShandongTancheng | NorthernJiangsu,SoutheasternShandong | DonghaiCounty(13)GuanglingCounty(11)LangyeCountry(13)PengchengCountry(8)XiapiCountry(17) | ||||
Qingzhou | Linzi | ZiboCity,Shandong | NorthernShandong | PingyuanCounty(9)DonglaiCounty(13)JinanCountry(10)LeAnguo(9))BeihaiCountry(18)QiCountry(6) | ||||
Yanzhou | Changyi | NorthwestofJinxiang,Shandong | Southwesternmountain,northeasternHenan | ChenliuCounty(17)ChenCounty(15)TaishanCounty(12)SanyangCounty(10)JiyinCounty(11)DongpingKingdom(7)RenchengKingdom(3)JibeiKingdom(5)/p> | Tagan,Liuzhong | XinheCounty,ShanshanCounty,XinjiangWithintheterritory | SameasWesternHan |
Politics
CentralSystem
ThecentralgovernmentoftheEasternHanDynastyfollowedtheofficialsystemoftheWesternHanDynasty,withthreegongsandnineofficialsasthebasicstructure.ButtheactualpoliticalpowerhasbeencompletelytransferredtoShangshutai.TheemperoroftheEasternHanDynastyascendedtothethroneandoftenusedtheTaifuorTaiweitorecordbooksandgeneralaffairs.TheEasternHanDynastydidnothaveaprimeminister(InthelateEasternHanDynasty,CaoCao'sappointmentasprimeministerwasaspecialcase),thegovernorbecameafirst-levellocalgovernor,andthepowerofthelocalarmywasgreatlyweakened.TheYushitaisystemwasdegradedandbecameanofficialoftheShaofu.ShizhongwastransferredfromanofficialpostintheWesternHanDynastytoaformalposition,andShizhongTemplewassetupastheofficialofficeofShizhong,whichwassubordinatetoShaofu.
DifferentfromtheWesternHanDynastyTaishi,Taifu,andTaibaoasShangGong,theEasternHanDynastyonlyregardsTaiFuasShangGong,andthereisnoTaiFuandTaiBao.AttheendofEmperorXianoftheHanDynasty,CaoCaomovedhiscapitaltoXuchangandbecamehisprefect.Thisisdonebyapowerfulministerwithoutauthorization,anditwillbeabolishedafterdeath.Accordingtotherecordsof"HanOfficials",theofficialsbelongedtotheTaiFu:onepersoninChangshi,onerankinonethousandstones,twenty-fourpersonsinthefamilyofLingshiand22personsineachoftheimperialfamily.ChangShiisthechiefofthestaffoftheTaifu'sHouse,ZhangZhang,andconsultant.Thesubordinatesarerelativelyhigh-levelsubordinates,whoareassignedtohandleaffairs.LingshiandYufuwererelativelylow-levelofficials,handlingclericalmatterssuchasdocuments,cartsandhorses.
TheEasternHanDynastyestablishedapoliticalsystemmoresuitableforitselfonthebasisoffollowingtheWesternHansystem.ComparedwiththeWesternHanDynasty,thebiggestfeatureoftheEasternHanDynastyofficialsystemis:"AlthoughtheSanGong,everythinggoesbacktotheTaiwanPavilion",therightsoftheSanGongwereweakened.Instead,therightsofthe"ShangShutai"andtheLiuCaoinstitutionsweregreatlystrengthened.Thisiswhathappenedlater.Theembryonicformofthe"ThreeProvincesandSixDepartmentsSystem".
LiuXiuhasimplementedaseriesofmeasurestostrengthenfeudalcentralization.TheofficialsoftheCentralGovernmentoftheEasternHanDynastyaredividedintothreesystems:provincialofficials,palaceofficials,andforeignofficials.Thedistinctionbetweeninternalofficialsandforeigndynastieshasexistedinancienttimes,andinthepalace,theemperor’sdailylivingareaiscalledShengzhong(alsoknownas"forbiddencentral"),sothereisadistinctionbetweenpalaceofficialsandprovincialofficialsamongtheofficialsoftheinnerpalace.Theeunuchsweretheeunuchswhoservedandtookcareoftheemperor'sdailylife.TheeunuchsintheprovincewereallunderthejurisdictionofHuangmenling.Eunuchsarealsoresponsiblefortheguardingworkintheprovince.
LiuXiuascendedthethroneandplacedDaSitu,DaSikong,andDaSima.
DaSitu,inchargeofpeople'seducation,inchargeofetiquette,discussesthestateaffairsnegotiatedbytheemperorwithTaiweiandSikong,andplaysthetitleafterthedecisionismade.
DaSikong,responsibleforwaterconservancyprojects,urbandefenseconstruction,palaceconstruction,etc.,discussesthestateaffairsnegotiatedbytheemperorwithTaiweiandSitu,andwillplaythetitleafterthedecisionismade.
DaSimaisresponsiblefortheassessmentofofficersacrossthecountry.Attheendofeachyear,theemperorisevaluatedandplayedasthebasisforthepromotionanddemotionofofficers.
IntheEasternHanDynasty,duetotheemphasisonclassics,theTaifuwastheheadofthecourtofficials.TheTaiFuusedthistoinstillhispoliticalideasintothePrince.Afterthecrownprinceascendedthethrone,heoftenusedtheTaiFutorecordbookaffairsandbecamethedefactoprimeminister.Historically,ZhaoXi,DengBiao,ZhangYu,FengShi,FengBiao,HuanYan,andZhaoJunallusedTaiFutorecordbooks.ThedeathoftheTaiFumeansthattheofficialisremoved(nolongerappointed)toshowrespect.AtthetimeoftheHanLingEmperor,ChenFanwasusedastheTaiFutorecordthebookaffairs.Later,ChenFanwasexecutedandHuGuangsucceededhim.Thisistheonlyexception.
SanGong
SanGongreferstoTaiwei,Situ,andSikong,thehighestgrade,andthenominaldutyistocoachtheemperortopresideovernationalgovernmentaffairs;abovetheSanGongthereistheTaifu,whoisresponsibleforcoachingtheemperor,Butnotstanding.TheactualgovernmentaffairsintheEasternHanDynastybelongedtoShangshutai.Therefore,ifSangongandTaifudidnothavethetitleof"RecordingShangshushi",theywerevacantpostswithoutrealpower.Thethreeofficialshavealonghistory,andtwoorthirtyeach.Amongthem,ChangShiisthemaindeputyoftheSanGong,andYuandYuaretheheadsofthedepartmentsinchargeofspecificaffairs(Yuistheprincipalandthedeputyisthedeputy).ExceptfortheappointmentofChangShibythecourt,theotherofficialsarehiredbytheSanGong.
AccordingtothesystemoftheEasternHanDynastywiththreemalesleadingtheJiuqing,TaiweiledthethreeQings,Taichang,Weiwei,andGuangluxun.TheofficialsinTaiwei'sMansionconsistedofonepersoninChangshi,whowasinchargeoftheaffairsofeachCao.Thereare24peopleineachCaoYue,history,andgenus.AmongtheCaoCao,XiCaoisresponsiblefortheappointmentandremovalofofficialsinTaiwei'sMansion;DongCaoisresponsibleforthetransferoftwothousandstones;HuCaoisresponsibleforhouseholdregistration,sacrifices,andagriculturalmulberry;ZouCaoisresponsibleformemorializing;ResigningCaoisresponsibleforhearingcasesandacceptingappeals;FaCaoisresponsibleforstationaffairs;WeiCaoisresponsiblefortherecruitmentandtransportationofsoldiersandprisoners;ThievesCaoisresponsibleforarrestingthieves;DecisionCaoisresponsibleforadjudicatingcriminallaw;SoldierCaoisresponsibleformilitaryaffairs;JinCaoisresponsibleforcurrencyandsaltandironaffairs;CangCaoisresponsiblefornationalwarehouseaffairs.Inaddition,thereisHuangGe,themainbook,thechiefofyourofficials.Inaddition,therearetwenty-threemembersofLingshiandtheimperialfamily.YourExcellencyorderedShitobeinchargeofTaiwei'shonorarydeacon;JishishiwasresponsibleforthemanagementofvariousdocumentssuchasthememorialsoftheTaiwei'smansion;MenlingshiwasinchargeoftheguardoftheTaiwei'smansion.OtherLingshiwassubordinatetoZhuCaoandhandledclericalaffairs.JudgingfromtheestablishmentandresponsibilitiesofthecadresintheTaiwei’sMansionintheEasternHanDynasty,theTaiwei’sjurisdictionseemstobeverybroad,buttheyareallnominal.Thereisnorighttocommunicatewitheachother,andtheTaiweihasnoactualpowertocontroltheaffairsofthegovernment.
Jiuqing
JiuqingisTaichang,Guangluxun,Weiwei,Taipu,Tingwei,Dahongxun,Zongzheng,Dasinong,andShaofu.Theirrespectivegovernmentaffairsare:TaichangzhangCeremony,GuangluxunandWeiweiinchargeofthepalaceandprovinceguards,Taipuinchargeoftheemperor'scarriagesandhorses,courtofficialsinchargeofjustice,Dahongxuninchargeofreceivingprincesandafewclan,andZongzhenginchargeoftheroyalfamily.Foraffairs,thechieffarmerisinchargeofthecountry'sfiscalrevenuesandexpenditures,andthelessermansionisinchargeoftheemperor'scostumes.ThechiefoftheofficialsoftheJiuqingistheQing,andthedeputyisCheng;eachofthemisdividedintoofficialstomanagespecificaffairs,generallywithLingastheprincipalandChengasthedeputy.
DifferentfromtheWesternHanDynasty,JiuqingoftheEasternHanDynastywassubordinatetoSanGong.Taichang,Guangluxun,andWeiweibelongtoTaiwei;Taipu,Tingwei,andDahongxuanbelongtoSitu;Zongzheng,Dasinong,andShaofubelongtoSikong.ThenineQingsoftheEasternHanDynastyalladdedtheword"Qing"totheofficialtitle,suchasTaichangqing,etc.,withtwothousandstonesintherank.Inaddition,therearesomedifferencesbetweentheEasternHanJiuqingandtheWesternHanDynasty:1.GuangluxunisinadditiontotheWesternHan'sfive-feelingZhongLangJiang,ZuoZhongLangJiang,RightZhongLangJiang,TigerBenZhongLangJiang,andHabayashiZhongLangJiang.,TheadditionofEastZhongLangJiang,BeiZhongLangJiang,XiZhongLangJiangandNanZhongLangJiang.2.ShaofuShangshuwasrenamedShangshutai,fromtheWesternHanDynastyChangShiCao,TwoThousandStoneCao,MinCao,andHostandGuestCaotoSixCao:ChangShiCaowaschangedtoofficialCao,andthreemaleCaoCaowereadded,andthehostandguestCaoweredividedintosouthernhostandguest.CaoandthenorthhostandguestCao.Shangshutaiaddedtwopeopleontheleftandright,sixforeachofCaoShilang,threeforeachofLingshiandthreeforCao,andthreeforeachofCaoZengling,whohadcomplicatedaffairs.TheShangshutaiorganizationismuchmoreimportantandlargerthantheWesternHanShangshu.
ForeignofficialsatthesamelevelasJiuqing(alsoknownas"LieQing")alsohaveJinWu,JiangZemin,andDaChangqiu.Amongthem,JinWuisresponsibleforpublicsecurityoutsidethepalaceandinsidethecapital.Thecitygateisalsoguardedbyalieutenantatthegate;themasterwillberesponsibleforcivilengineeringworkssuchastheancestraltemplehallandpalacecemetery.HisdeputyisCheng,andthesubordinatedepartmentsarealsoresponsibleforWithLingastheprincipalpositionandChengasthedeputyposition;DaChangqiuisinchargeofthequeen'saffairs,whichissimilarinnaturetotheyoungmansioninthecourt,andisassumedbytheeunuch.
Afterthecrownheirtothethronewasformallyestablished,therewasanDongguanPalacespeciallyaffiliatedtothecrownprince.Theestablishmentofofficialsisgenerallysimilartothatofthegovernment,buttheclassificationisnotasdetailedasthelatter.TheofficialpositionsoftheEastPalacearecrowned"Prince",suchasthePrinceTaifu,PrinceShaofu,andPrinceFamilyOrder.
Shangshutai
Shangshutaiistheemperor’ssecretarialagency,anditsofficialofficesarelocatedinthepalaceandoutsidetheforbiddenprovince.Mainlyinchargearethemanagementofchaptersandmemorials,draftingedicts,butinfact,ShangShutaiisinchargeofgovernmentaffairsonbehalfofthemonarch,withgreatpower.Shangshutaihasonechief(order)andonedeputychief(servant),andtherearesixpeopledividedintoeighteenunderShangshutai.TheofficialswhocommunicatedbetweenShangShutaiandtheemperorincludedShiZhong,ZhongChangShi,HuangMenShiLangandsoon.Amongthem,theservantswerefilledbyscholars;theservantsofZhongchangandHuangmenwereassumedbyeunuchs.Attendantsentertheforbiddenprovinceonlyifthereissomethingtodo.AttorneysinZhongchangandAttorneysfromHuangmenliveintheprovincedaily.Therefore,althoughtherankofservantsisthehighestamongthethree,andthesecondisthedegreeofintimacywiththemonarch,thedegreeofintimacywiththemonarchisbasedonZhongchang.Forthemost.TheguardworkinsidethepalaceandoutsidetheprovinceisinchargeofGuangLuxunandWeiWeiintheJiuqing.GuangLuxunisinsideandWeiWeiisoutside.Guangluxunsubordinatesfivegeneralsincludingfivegenerals,includingfivegenerals,left,right,Huben,andYulin.ThegeneralsofZhonglangincludeZhonglang,Shilang,andLang.Guangluxun’sguardforceisLangGuan,andWeiWei’sguardforceisarmedguards.Therefore,thepositionofWeiWeiinpalaceandguardaffairsisquiteimportant.
Localgovernmentsystem
ComparedwiththeWesternHanDynasty,thelocalgovernmentsystemoftheEasternHanDynastyisbasicallythesameatthecountyandcountylevels,buttheimportanceandpowerofthecountyismuchlowerthanthatoftheWesternHanDynasty.Attheprefecturelevel,therearefundamentaldifferences.TheprefecturesintheEasternHanDynastyhaveevolvedintoafirst-levelplace,surpassingtheprefectures.Sofar,thelocaladministrativedivisioninancientChinachangedfromasystemofprefecturesandcountiestoathree-levelsystemofprefectures,counties,andcounties,whichlasteduntil"abandonedprefectures"intheSuiDynasty.
TheEasternHanDynastydividedtheareaoutsidethecapitalofLuoyangintotwelvestates,andeachsentagovernortothepost.Inaddition,thesevencountiesofJingzhao,ZuoFengyi,YouFufeng,Hedong,Henan,Hanoi,andHongnongarethedistrictsunderthejurisdictionofSiliXiaowei,andtheyarecalledSilibu.SiLiXiaoweiisaBeijingofficial,andhisjobistomonitortheillegalactivitiesofhundredsofofficialsinBeijing.IntheEasternHanDynasty,everytimethethreeofficerswereretired,itwascausedbythecorrectionofthelieutenantsofthelieutenant.Therefore,thetitleofthelieutenantofthelieutenantwas"Xiong".Whentheemperorconvenedthecourtmeeting,XiaoweiSiLi,YuShiZhongchengandShangShulinghadseparateseats,called"ThreeAlones".TherankofthelieutenantofSiLiwastwothousandshi,andtheofficerswereengagedintheranks,falseassistants,etc.,andcommandedanarmedpoliceforcecomposedof1,200slaves.TheofficialnameofthelieutenantofSiLiwasalsoderivedfromthis.
TheprefecturesfollowedtheWesternHanDynastyandtheHanDynastyEmperor'ssystem,withoneprefectureandoneshepherdandtwothousandstoneranks.IntheeighteenthyearofJianwu(42years),thegovernor'shistorywaschangedtosixhundredstones.Inthe5thyearofEmperorZhongpingoftheHanLingEmperor(188years),hechangedthestatetoanimalhusbandryandrankedtwothousandstones.ThegovernoroftheEasternHanDynastyhasafixedstationandofficialoffice,andtheprefectsoftheprefectsoftherectificationpostdonotneedtobeverifiedbythethreepublicofficialsintheWesternHansystem,andtheycanbedirectlyremoved.Afterthestatewaschangedtopastoralism,healsoledthemilitaryandadministration,andhadahighposition.ItwasabitsimilartotheJieduShioftheTangDynasty,andthevastareaofjurisdictionwasnotcomparabletothatoftheJieduShi.SimilartotheWesternHanDynasty,thegovernoralsohadtotraveltotheprefecturetospyonthepoliticalsituationandreturntoBeijingtoreplayattheendoftheyear.However,thegovernoroftheEasternHanDynastydidnothavetogobacktoBeijinginperson,butsenthissubordinatestosubmitdocumentstotheSituMansion.
EasternHanDynastyhasatotalof105counties:27kingdoms,7countiesunderthesubordinates,and71counties.ExceptforthesevenprefecturesunderthejurisdictionoftheMinistryofLiability,theKingdomandtheprefecturesareequallydividedintotheprefectures.Amongthem,Yuzhouleadsthesixprefectures,Jizhounine,Yanzhoueight,Xuzhoufive,Binzhounine,Youzhoueleven,andQingzhou.Leadingsix,Jingzhouleadingseven,Yangzhouleadingsix,YizhouandLiangzhoueachleadingtwelve,andJiaozhileadingninecounties.
IntheEasternHanDynastysystem,theprinceappointedtheking,andthecountywasthestate.EachcountryhasoneFuandXiang.Fuisinchargeofthepalace,andhispositionisliketheprefectoftheHanDynasty;theministerisliketheprefectofthecounty,inchargeofgovernmentaffairs;theministerhasalonghistory,andthepositionislikethechiefofthecounty.Anotherlieutenant,witharankoftwothousandstones,wasappointedasacountycaptain,anofficerinchargeofmilitaryaffairsandarrestingthieves.
Theroyalmansionorderedoneman,Zhiqianshi,andhispositionwassimilartothatoftheHandynasty.Hewasinchargeofthedoctorandlangofthepalace;theservant,Zhiqianshi,wasresponsibleforthetraininganddrivingoftheroyalpalace’scarriagesandhorses;Thenumberofpeopleinthebook,therankofsixhundredstones,islikeShangshu;thenumberofpeoplewhoaregreeted,therankoffourhundredstones,thepositionisenvoybytheorderoftheking;therearealsothechiefofritualsandmusic,thechiefguard,thechiefmedicalengineer,thechiefYongcang,andthechiefpriestofthetemple,etc.Theranksareallfourhundredstones.
Therankoftheprefectofthecountyistwothousandshi,onlyHenanCountyislocatedbecauseofthecapital,andthegovernorcalledHenanYin,therankishigherthantheJiuqing,andtherankistwothousandshi.EachcountyhasoneChengshi,theprefect,andsixhundredshi,whoisinchargeofcivilaffairs;thebordercountyhasanotherChangshi,whoissixhundredshi,whoisinchargeofmilitaryandpoliticalaffairs.Underthelonghistory,Simawasresponsibleforspecificmilitarycommand.TherewerenocountycaptainsintheinterioroftheEasternHanDynasty,andtheTaishouledthetroops.Thefrontiercountyhasacaptainoracaptainofasubordinatecountryleadingthearmyandgovernsthecounty,anditsstatusisslightlysimilartothatofthesmallercountiesinthemainland.Forexample,inthefirstyearofHanheEmperorYongyuan(89),thecaptainoftheXihecountryandthecaptainoftheShangjuncountrywereplaced;inthefifteenthyearofYonghe(105)wasplacedthecapitaloftheeasternandwesternpartsofLiaoning.Wei;EmperorHan'ansettherighttoFufengDuwei,JingzhaoHuyaDuweiandsoon.
Thecounty-levellocalorganizationsystemoftheEasternHanDynastyisthesameasthatoftheWesternHanDynasty.WhenLiehoutookthecountyasafief,hewascalledtheHouState,andtheHouStatehadoneminister,whichwasequivalenttothemagistrateorheadofthecounty(dependingonthesizeoftheHouState).Ifthenumberofhouseholdsinthecountryismorethan1,000,theywillhaveonefamilymemberandoneconcubine.TheyareofficialsoftheHoufuanddonotmanagecivilaffairs.Thosewhoarenotsatisfiedwithonethousandhouseholdswillonlyhaveoneconcubine.IntheEasternHanDynasty,theHouhadanothertownshipandapavilion,andthelandwasatownshipandapavilion.Thefiefsoftheempress,empressdowager,andprincessarecalledeup,andthesystemofsettingordersandlengthisequivalenttothatoftheHoustate.Roadsaresetupinareaswhereethnicminoritiesliveandbelongtocounties,mostlyinthesouthwesternregionssuchasBaandShu,withtheleadersofethnicminoritytribesasroadchiefs.Forcountieswithmorethan10,000households,onecountymagistrateisinchargeofQianshi;onecountychiefisinchargeofcivilaffairs,documents,andwarehouses;andtwocountylieutenantsareinchargeofpublicsecurity.Forcountieswithlessthan10,000households,thereisonecountyhead,witharankofthreehundredorfourhundredshi;onecountyprinceandonecountylieutenant.IfsaltwasproducedinthecountiesoftheEasternHanDynasty,thesaltofficerwasresponsibleforthemanagementofsaltfarmsandmines,andthecollectionofsalttaxes.Thecountyironofficialwhoproducesironisresponsibleforsmeltingandcasting.Inthecountywherethehandicraftindustryisdeveloped,theworkerofficerisresponsibleformanagingthecraftsmanandcollectingindustrialandcommercialtaxes.Incountieswithwell-developedfisheries,waterofficialsareresponsibleformanagingfisheriesandcollectingtaxes.Theabove-mentionedofficialsarenotaffiliatedtocountiesandcounties,butaresubordinatetotheShaofuandbelongtothedispatchedagency.TheofficialsystemoftheEasternHanDynastybelowthecountylevelisnodifferentfromthatoftheWesternHanDynasty.Fordetails,pleaserefertotheofficialsystemoftheWesternHanDynasty.
Thesystemofselectingofficials
See:Observation,ExaminationandRequisition
Inspection,ExaminationandRequisitionisthesystemofselectingofficialsintheEasternHanDynasty.Theso-calledinvestigationreferstothelocalprefecturesandcountiesrecommendingpeoplewithreputationsandvirtuesunderthenamesof"goodness","filialpiety",and"talentedtalents",andafterexaminations,theyareappointedtoofficialpositions.Theso-calledrequisitionreferstothedirectrecruitmentofsomeonetobeanofficialbytheimperialcourtorgovernment.
Inname,thosewhoarebeingprosecutedandexpropriatedmusthave"hightalentswiththesamename",whichishighlyregardedbythetownshippartypublicopinion.Therefore,inordertofightforinvestigationandexpropriation,thescholar-bureaucratsatthattimepaidmuchattentiontomodifyingtheircharacter,inordertoarousefameandraisetheirvalue.Somepeopleareevenmorepretentious,sellingfameandreputation,inordertowinhigh-rankingofficials.Duringtheinvestigationandexpropriation,briberyandentrustment,privilegesrampant,havebecomeacommonphenomenon.Eventhesupremerulerhastoadmitthatthe"electionsareobedient".AssoonasEmperorHanMingcametothethrone,hesaid:"Theelectionisnottruetoday,andtheevilspiritshavenotgone;pleaseentrustthepowertothehandicappedofficials."Itisunderthisdecadentelectoralsystemthatpowerfullandlordscontrolalllevelsofpoliticalpowerinafeudalway.Thehierarchicalrelationshiphasbecomeincreasinglysolidified,andagroupofwealthymagnatesand"Confucianfamilies"who"havebeenofficialsfromgenerationtogeneration"havebeguntotakeshape.Forexample,DengYu'sfamilyhas2membersofgeneralpublic,29membersofHou,13membersofgeneralsandbelow,14membersofmid-2000s,48membersofprefectsandcounties,andtherestoftheofficialpositionsareinnumerable.TheYangfamilyofHongnongandtheYuanfamilyofRunanwerealsofamousforthefourgenerationsandthreegongs.Thesearistocraticfamilieswilllaterdevelopintofamilyclans.
Military
Intermsofmilitaryaffairs,theseniorofficialsofthecentralgovernmentwhoarequitethreemenincludegenerals,generalshussars,generalschariots,andgenerals.GeneralYouandYouarenotstanding.Theabove-mentionedgeneralsallopenedtheirresidences.TheresidencesconsistedofChangshiandSima,twenty-ninemembers,thirty-onemembersofLingshiYubelongedto31people,twomembersofZhonglangandLang,andstaffofficers,allofwhomwereappointedbytheimperialcourt.Ifthegeneralsdirectlyleadthetroops,theyshallsetupcommanderssuchasschoollieutenants,Sima,junhou,andmilitarycommandersonthebuildingsoftheMinistry,Qu,andTun.
Afterthemid-EasternHanDynasty,theQueenMothercametothecourt,andherrelativesruledasageneral.TogetherwiththeTaifuSangong,theywerecalledWufu.Thereisalsotheso-calledgeneralmiscellaneousnumber,setupontheoccasion,andwithdrawaftertheevent.GeneralWeiDuLiaowasundercivilstrifefromtimetotimeduetotheSouthernHuns,andhehasbeenstandingsincetheeighthyearofYongping(65years).TheEmperorofHanLingsetupeightlieutenantsintheWestGardentocommandthearmygarrisonedinLuoyang,thecapital,withtheeunuchastheleader.
Thestandingarmyiscomposedofthecentralandlocalarmy(countynationalarmy).IntheCentralArmy,thegarrisontroopsoftheBeijingDivisionwereledbytheChengmenColonel,andthefieldtroops(NorthernArmy)wereledbytheNorthernArmyZhonghou.TheNorthernArmyadministersfivearmsoftheMinistry,thedesignationsareTunqi(cavalry),Yueqi(specialforces),infantry,Changshui(waterarmy),andarchery(bowandarrow).ThecommanderistheschoollieutenantandthedeputyisSima.Thetotalnumberoftheentirearmyislessthan5,000.TheNorthernArmyusuallystationedinthecapitalinchargeofthemonarchSuweiandassistanttothecapital’spublicsecurity,andtheoccurrenceofwarbecamethecoreoftheformationoftheexpeditionforce.ThelocalcountysoldierswereabolishedandreducedmanytimesintheearlyEasternHanDynasty,leavingonlyafewgarrisonsintheborderareasandtheinlandpass.Intheeventofawar,theywereeithertemporarilyrecruitingtroopsormobilizingthenorthernarmyofthecapitaltofight.
Economy
Agriculture
Productiontools
IntheEasternHanDynasty,ashort-coiledox-plowploughappeared,whichwasflexibleinoperationandwasconvenientforplowingonsmallplotsoffarmland.Theemergenceofthiskindofshort-coiledox-plowploughiscombinedwiththeimprovementoftheploughshare.IntheEasternHanDynasty,alargenumberofall-ironploughshareshavebeenused.ComparedwiththepreviousV-shapedploughs,theangleofthebladeendhasbeengraduallyreduced,whichnotonlysavessoilandlabor,butalsoallowsdeepploughing.Inaddition,newtypesofall-ironfarmingtoolsaregraduallyincreasing.Thecrankhoe,seeninthecarvedstoneportraitofLeshanclifftombinSichuan,isacultivatortoolthatisconvenientforeradicatingweeds;theironhookfoundinMianyang,Sichuan,withalengthof35cm,isasmallfarmtooldedicatedtoharvestingandisveryconvenienttooperate.
Accordingtorecords,inthelastyearsofEmperorXianoftheHanDynasty,YongzhougovernorZhangJionceorderedrichman-madehousesinLongxi,Tianshui,andNan'ancounties.Itcanbeseenthatwatertankshavebeenwidelyusedatthattime.Shuizhuisatoolforpoundingstonewithwaterpower.Itisnotonlylabor-saving,butalsomoreefficientthanbeforeusingamortarorfoottopoundrice.Archaeologicalexcavationshavealsocontinuedtounearthmodelsofpotterywindmillsandpotterymillstones,whichindicatethatagriculturalproductsprocessingtoolshavemadesignificantprogress.
LingquWaterConservancy
IntheEasternHantombsfoundeverywhere,youcanoftenseeInthemodelofthecombinationofpaddyfieldandpond,thereisanartesianwaterchannelleadingfromthepondtothepaddyfield,andsomealsohaveagateattheexit.AtthetimeoftheEmperorofHanLing,theeunuchBiLansummedupthepracticalexperienceoftheworkingpeopleandcreatedrolloversandthirstyblacks,whichgreatlyimprovedthelevelofirrigation.
DuringtheEasternHanDynasty,notonlymanyabandonedPitangswererestoredandexpanded,butalsoanumberofnewirrigationprojectswerebuilt.Forexample,theHongqiaopiintheRunanareawasabandonedintheWesternHanDynasty.AtthebeginningoftheEasternHanDynasty,DengChenservedastheprefectofRunan,repairingit,andirrigatingthousandsofhectaresoffertileland.Later,itcontinuedtobeexpanded.DuringtheHanDynastyandEmperors,HeChang,theprefect,repairedthechannelsthereandcultivatedmorethan30,000hectaresoffertileland.PuyangpiinthenorthofPixuCounty,ShaopiintheLujiangRiver,andJinghuLakeinKuaijiwereallwell-knownirrigationprojectsatthattime.
EasternHanDynastyDuPoetryWaterDrainage(5photos)
IntheearlyEasternHanDynasty,manyirrigationchannelswereduginvariousplaces,suchasSanfu,Hanoi,Shanyang,Hedong,andShangTheDang,Taiyuan,Zhao,Wei,HexiandJiangnanregionsalso"irrigatedthroughcanals,"andsomeareasopenedupalotofricefields.ThetreatmentoftheYellowRiverwasahugewaterconservancyprojectatthattime.Atthebeginningofthe1stcenturyAD,theYellowRiverbrokeitsembankmentatthejunctionofHenanandHebei,andtherivermovedsouth,changingfromQiancheng(northofGaowan,Shandong)tothesea.Theriverfloodedandfloodeddozensofcounties.DuringEmperorHanMingDynasty,undertheauspicesoffamouswaterconservancyexpertsWangJingandWangWu,theJunyiDitchwasbuiltwiththe"weirflowmethod",andthecanalwasbuiltmorethanathousandmilesfromXingyang(nowZhengzhouXingyangCity,Henan)toQianchengHaikou.SoastodiverttheriverandBian.TheYellowRiverisconstrainedbytwodikes,andthewaterisstrongenoughtowashawaythesandandflowintothesea.Afterthehardworkofthepeople,thefloodsoftheYellowRiverwerefinallyovercome.Intheeighthundredyearssincethen,theYellowRiverhasnotbeendiverted,andthefloodshavealsodecreased.
Cattlefarmingtechnology
Thecattlefarmingtechnologyhasreceivedwidespreadattention.Atthattime,somelocalofficialspaidattentiontothepromotionofcattlefarmingtechnology,andtheironplowcattlefarmingtechnologyhasbeenpromotedfromtheCentralPlainstothenorthernplateauandtheJiangnanarea.FarmingandanimalhusbandrymuralsintheEasternHanTombinXindianziTownship,Helinger,InnerMongolia.ThecattlefarmingonthestonereliefsoftheEasternHanDynastyinSuideCounty,Shaanxi,andthecattlefarmingoftheEasternHanDynastyinMizhiCounty,provethatcattlefarmingtechniquesinInnerMongoliaandtheNorthernShaanxiPlateauarenodifferentfromthoseintheCentralPlains.RenYanbecametheprefectofJiuzhenandpromotedcattlefarminginthelocalarea.TheintensivecultivationmethodinventedinthelateWesternHanDynastywasquicklypopularizedintheEasternHanDynasty.
InCuiShi’s"SiminyueOrder",somesituationsofintensivefarmingandmanagementinthelandlord’sfarmaredescribed.Theagriculturalmanagementofthisfarmlandpaysgreatattentiontoseasonalsolarterms,andemphasizesonkillingweedsandfertilizing.Accordingtothenatureofdifferentsoils,differentcropsareplantedanddifferentplantingdensitiesareused.Itcanalsoturnthesoilanddrythefieldsintime,androtatecropsintwoseasonstoimprovetheutilizationrateoftheland.
Handicraftindustry
IronSmeltingTechnology
EasternHanHuanShouKnife(6photos)
DuetothepopularizationofironfarmtoolsintheEasternHanDynasty,thedemandforsteelhasgreatlyincreased,whichpromotedtheimprovementofironsmeltingtechnology.Nanyang,theaccompanyingcapitaloftheEasternHanDynasty,wasthelargestironsmeltingcenterinthecountry.Amongthem,NanyangofficialandinventorDuShiinventedthewaterdrain(blastfurnace),whichusedhydraulicrotatingmachinerytoexpandandshrinktheblastbellows.Addoxygentotheblastfurnace.Thewaterdrainhasgreatlyimprovedthequalityandefficiencyofironsmelting.ItisamajorinnovationinironsmeltingtechnologyintheEasternHanDynasty.Itisalsoagreatinventioninthehistoryofironsmeltingandmachineryintheworld,aboutathousandyearsearlierthaninEurope.Inironcasting,theEasternHanDynastyhadalreadymasteredtheadvancedtechnologyoflaminatedcasting.InadryingfankilnfoundinWenCounty,HenanProvince,morethan500setsofstackedclaymoldsforcastingpartsofcartsandhorseswereunearthed.Bystackingseveralclaymoldstogetherandassemblingacompleteset,severalordozensofcastingscanbecastatatime.Atthesametime,thestackcastingtechnologyhasbeengreatlyimproved,fromtheoriginaldouble-holecastingtosingle-holecasting.Theimprovementofstackcastingtechnologyfurtherimprovesproductionefficiencyandsavesrawmaterials.ArchaeologicalexcavationsprovethatironutensilshavebeenwidelyusedinallaspectsoflifeintheEasternHanDynasty.Alargenumberofunearthedironnails,ironpans,ironknives,ironscissors,ironlamps,etc.arestrongevidence.Ironweaponsbegantograduallyreplacebronzeweaponsafterthemid-WesternHanDynasty,whenanewtechnologyforsmeltingironandsteelappearedatthattime-"HundredSteelmaking".Theso-called"100-smeltingsteel"referstotherepeatedheating,foldingandforgingofblockirontomakethesteelstructuredense,uniformincomposition,andreduceimpurities,therebyimprovingthequalityofthesteel.Theswordmadewiththistechnology-the"ringheadknife",hasametalringattheendofthehandleforeasymanipulation.Thebladeisstraightandthebladeislong,hardandsharp.Thequalityiscompletelyimpeccable,anditeasilyoverwhelmsthebronzesword.Itwasthemostadvancedandlethalclose-bodycoldweaponintheworldatthattime,anditwasalsoaweaponofextraordinarysignificanceinhumanhistory.
ThegestationstageoftheringfirstknifeandhundredsteelmakingtechnologywasintheWesternHanDynasty,whilethematurityandpopularizationwereintheEasternHanDynasty,andthecompletereplacementofthelongswordwasattheendoftheEasternHanDynasty.DuetotheadvancementofironsmeltingtechnologyandefficiencyintheEasternHanDynasty,thenumberofsteelknivesforgingandforginghasincreasedfrom10timesto30oreven50timesintheWesternHanDynasty.InJuly1974,aring-headknifeoftheEasternHanDynastywasunearthedintheCangshanareaofLinyi,Shandong.Theknifewasalsoengravedwith18charactersintheofficialscript:"Yongchu6thyear(112)MayBingwu"Thirty-six-thousand-swordsJiyangyi'sdescendants"."Thirty-seven"meansthirtyrefining,thatis,thisknifeusedthe"100-steel-making"techniquetofoldandforgethesteeluptothirtytimes,andthebladeofthisknifewasalsofoundtohavebeen"quenched".Toincreasethesurfacehardness.ItwaswiththesupportofthisadvancedweaponandthepowerfulnationalpoweroftheHanEmpirethattheEasternHanarmycompletelyeliminatedtheNorthernHunsandtheSouthernHunswerecompletelySinicized.Intheend,thispartofthedescendantsoftheNorthernHunswhomovedwestwardcametoEuropeandwascalledtheHuns,whichupendedtheWesternRomanEmpireintheirtwilightyears.
DuringtheEasternHanDynasty,coal(carboncoal)wasusedasfuelintheironsmeltingindustry.IntheironsmeltingsiteinGongyiCity,Zhengzhou,Henan,briquettesmixedwithsoilandgrassstemswerefound,indicatingthatcoalhasbeenusedtomakeiron.TheBashuareaalsousesnaturalgastoboilsalt.
Textileindustry
Inthetextileindustry,weavingflowersintheearlyyearsoftheEasternHanDynastyItiswovenintoacolorfulbrocadewithcomplexpatterns.Atthattime,Shubrocadewaswell-knownalloverthecountry,andthesilkindustryinXiangyi(SuiCounty,Henan)andQi(Linzi,Shandong)wasparticularlydeveloped.Archaeologicalmaterialsalsoprovethatthesilkweavingindustryhasalsodevelopedgreatlyintheborderareas.TheredcuppatternsunearthedfromHantombsinmanyplacesinXinjiangareevenlywovenandhaveregularpatterns,reflectingthehighlevelofsilkweavingcraftsmanship.Inthesameareaunearthedfinelystructuredwoolenfabricswithbrightcolors,showingthehighlydevelopedwooltextiletechnologyinthenorthwestatthattime.
Lacquerwareindustry
Otherhandicraftindustriessuchaslacquerwareindustryandceramicindustry,intheEasternHanDynastyTherearealsofurtherdevelopments.Atthattime,thelacquerwareproducedinShuCountyandGuanghanwasthemostfamous.Thelacquerwaremadebytheworkersandofficialsofthetwoplaceswereallexquisitehandicrafts.Atthattime,thefiringtemperatureofporcelainwashigher,andthewaterabsorptionoftheutensilswasweaker.Judgingfromtheunearthedartifacts,itisveryclosetothelaterceladon.
Commercial
Country-styleproductionandmanagement
EasternHanDynastyThepowerfullandlordsalloccupyalargeamountofland,andusuallyadoptfarm-styleproductionandmanagementmethods.Inthefarmsatthattime,therewerevariousindustriesincludingagriculture,forestry,animalhusbandry,andfishery.Theyalsoengagedinsomehandicraftproductionorcarriedoutcertaincommercialandusuryactivities,whichwereextremelyself-sufficient.Forexample,thefarmownedbyLiuXiu'smother-in-law,FanHong,inHuyang,hasafewmilesofFanbei,withmorethan300hectaresofland.Inthisfarmhouse,therearemanyhousesandpavilions,"bambooandtreesmakeforest,sixanimalsgraze","sandalwoodandmulberry,closeddoortomakeamarket",whichshowsthatitslargescaleandthecharacteristicsofdiversifiedoperations.Inaddition,FanHongalso"goodstocks",engagedincommercialandloansharkingactivities.Thesamesceneofthelandlord’sfarmcanalsobeseenontheportraittilesfoundinSichuan.
The"SiminyueOrder"writtenbyCuiShireflectstheoperationofthelandlord’sfarmindetail.Theso-called:Thefarmsareplantedwithgraincropssuchaswheat,barley,springwheat,millet,millet,japonicarice,soybeans,andadzukibeans,cashcropssuchasflax,sesame,edibleedulis,fruitsandothervegetables;makevarioussauces,wine,vinegarandCaramelandotherfoods;andplantmedicinalplantstopreparemedicines.Inthislargefarm,variousforesttreesandfruittreesarealsoplanted,andfarmanimalssuchashorsesandcattleanddomesticanimalsareraised.Inmanualproduction,heraisessilkwormshimself,weavesvariouslinenandsilkfabrics,makesclothesandshoes,andmakesfarmtoolsandweapons.Inaddition,grainandagriculturalby-productsarealsotradedinthefarms.Itcanbeseenthatinthelandlord’sfarm,allkindsofsubsistencematerialscanbasicallybeself-sufficient.
Advancedeconomicregions
ThegeneralpromotionofirontoolsandtheimprovementofcattlefarmingtechniquesareenhancedIthasimprovedtheabilityofpeopletofightagainstthenaturalworld,andinparticular,ithasmadepossiblethelarge-scaledevelopmentoftheriver-netswampareainthesouthoftheYangtzeRiver.Inadditiontovarioussocialreasonsatthattime,theeconomicareaoftheEasternHanDynastybegantoundergoobviouschanges.
BeforetheEasternHanDynasty,theadvancedareasofChina'seconomyweremainlynorthoftheHuaiRiver,especiallythemiddleandlowerreachesoftheYellowRiverincludingGuanzhong.ThepopulationdistributionatthattimewasalsomainlyconcentratedintheYellowRiverBasin.InthelateEasternHanDynasty,thissituationbegantochangesignificantly.SomeareasoftheYellowRiverBasinhavedecreasedinpopulationandareshowingsignsofdecline.Inthesouth,neweconomicdevelopmentareashaveemerged,andthepopulationhasrisensharply.
Withtheincreaseinpopulation,thedevelopmentspeedofmanyareasinthesouthhasaccelerated.Forexample,theTaihuLakeandQiantangRiverbasinswereunderthejurisdictionofKuaijiCountyduringtheWesternHanDynasty,andweredividedintoWuandKuaijiCountyduringtheEasternHanDynasty.Thisisadirectresultofeconomicdevelopment.Otherareas,suchasPoyangLake,DongtingLakeandtheChengduPlain,areconstantlydevelopingandbecomingneweconomicallydevelopedareas.However,duringtheEasternHanDynasty,mostofthepopulationwasstillconcentratedinthemiddleandlowerreachesoftheYellowRiver.Therefore,theYellowRiverBasinwasstilltheeconomicandpoliticalcenteratthattime.
Population
Duetotheconstructionoffarmlandwaterconservancyprojects,theimprovementoffarmingtools,theimprovementofagriculturalfarmingtechniquesandthepromotionofintensivefarmingmethods,socialproductivityhasbeengreatlyincreased,andagriculturalproductionintheEasternHanDynastyTherehasbeenagreatdevelopment.Forexample,intheWesternHanDynasty,theJingzhao,ZuoFengyi,andYouFufengareasnearthecapitalwerelocatedintheGuanzhongareawithaparticularlydensepopulationofmorethan2.4million.BythetimeoftheEasternHanDynasty,theGuanzhongwarswerestillfrequentanddilapidated,andthepopulationdroppedsharplytomorethan500,000.Yanzhoualsoreducedfrommorethan7.8milliontoabout4million.Onthecontrary,thepopulationsofthesouthernstateshaveincreasedinvaryingdegrees.ThepopulationofYangzhouincreasedfrommorethan3.2milliontomorethan4.3million;thepopulationofJingzhouincreasedfrommorethan3.5milliontomorethan6.2million;thepopulationofYizhoualsoincreasedfrommorethan4.7milliontomorethan7.2million.
ThepeakoftheofficialhukoustatisticsoftheEasternHanDynastywasinthethreeyearsofYongshou(157years).Therewere10,677,960householdsand56476856inthecountry.Modernscholarsconsideredthatalargenumberofpeoplewereoccupiedorshelteredbypowerfullandlordsatthattime.MostofthegroupssuchasTufu,clans,guests,tribes,andslaves,aswellastheHuns,Qiang,Di,andBaiyuewhomigratedtotheHanregion,werenotincludedinthehouseholdregistrationstatistics.Therefore,itisbelievedthatthepeakpopulationoftheEasternHanDynastyreached65million.
ADyear | Numberofhouseholds | Numberofmouths | Numberofcultivatedfields(unitYi) |
GuangwuEmperorZhongyuanIIYear(57years) | 4279634 | 21007820 | - |
EighteenthyearofEmperorHanMingYongping(75years) | 5860573 | 34125021 | - |
HanChapterEmperorChapterandSecondYear(88years) | 7456784 | 43356367 | - |
ThefirstyearofEmperorYuanxingoftheHanDynasty(105years) | 9237112 | 53256229 | 7320170 |
Han'anEmperorYanguang4thYear(125years) | 9647838 | 48690789 | 6942892 |
HanShunEmperorYongheThreeYears(138years) | 10780000 | 53869588 | - |
EmperorYongheoftheHanDynasty(140years) | 9698630 | 49150220 | - |
ThefirstyearofEmperorJiankangoftheHanDynasty(144Year) | 9946919 | 49730550 | 6896271 |
ThefirstyearofYongjiaofEmperorHanChong(145years) | 9937680 | 49524183 | 6957676 |
ThefirstyearoftheHanZhidiedition(146years) | 9348227 | 47566772 | 6930123 |
EmperorHanHuan’seternallifeforthreeyears(157years) | 10677960 | 56486856 | - |
Source:"TheBookoftheLaterHan·TheFiveofJunguo"andLiuZhaoNote;"BookofJin·Geography". |
Culture
TheEasternHandynastyfollowedmanyguidelinesandpoliciesoftheWesternHanDynasty,andmadeadjustmentsandreformsinsomeaspects.,Makingitmoresuitableforthesocialconditionsatthattime.IntheearlydaysoftheEasternHanDynasty,theregimefurtherstrengtheneditsintegrationwithlocalforcesandstabilizedthecountry,farexceedingtheleveloftheWesternHanDynastyintermsofeconomy,culture,scienceandtechnology.
Thought
AttheendoftheWesternHanDynasty,thetheologicalConfucianismthatbeganwithDongZhongshucontinuedtodevelop,andthesuperstitionofZhenweibegantospreadwidely.LiuXiuusedFuRuiTuzhentoprovehiminordertobecomeemperor.Tobeanemperoristhe"mandateofheaven",itisthewillofGod.AfterLiuXiuestablishedtheregimeoftheEasternHanDynasty,hebelievedinZhenweievenmore.Alldecision-makingonmajorissuesshouldbebasedondivinity;divinityisalsousedto"determinesuspicion";theinterpretationofConfucianclassicsisbasedondivinity.
Technology
Papermaking
IntheEasternHanDynasty,thepapermakingindustryGreatachievementshavebeenmade.IntheWesternHanDynasty,thepapermakingprocesswasstillintheexploratorystage."TheBookoftheLaterHanDynasty"recordsthatduringtheHanDynasty,ShangFangorderedCaiLuntosumuphisexperienceandinventedthetechnologyofusingbark,hemp,rags,andoldfishingnetsasrawmaterialstomakepaper.Thenewpapermakingprocesshasmademajorbreakthroughsinkeyprocessessuchaschemicaltreatmentandbleachingofpulp.CaiLun’simprovementhasdiversifiedtherawmaterialsforpapermaking,canalsomakeuseofoldandwastematerials,makeiteasytoobtainmaterials,improvethequalityofpaper,andfacilitatepopularization.CaiLun'sachievementsareimmortal,andtheworldcalledit"CaiHouPaper"atthattime.Sincethen,paperhasquicklyreplacedthepastbambooslips,woodenslipsandsilk,greatlyfacilitatingthedisseminationandpromotionofscienceandculture.Inthe8thcenturyAD,ChinesepapermakingtechnologywasintroducedtoWestAsia,thentoEurope,andgraduallyspreadthroughouttheworld.TheinventionanduseofpaperisChina'sgreatcontributiontoworldcivilization.
In105AD,CaiLuntransformedthepapermanufacturingtechnologyonthebasisofhispredecessors,whichmadetheChinesewritingrecordawayfromtheeraofusingbambooslips.Atthesametime,papermakingwasalsousedasthefourancientChinesemastersthatwearefamiliarwith.Oneoftheinventionshasspreadtothisday.AnothercontributionoftheEasternHanDynastytolatergenerationswasthedevelopmentofthepotteryindustry,whichallowedChinatocompletelybreakawayfromthematerialconstraintsoftheBronzeAgeandbroughtsomeproductsthatwerepreviouslyexclusivetothewealthyandnoblesintothehomesofordinarypeople.
NaturalScience
Intermsofnaturalscience,representedbyZhangHeng,"Kesheng"inNanyangTheacademiccirclesoftheEasternHanDynastyhaveachievedveryhighachievements.ZhangHengusedsuperbcraftsmanshiptomanufacturescientificinstrumentssuchasthe"armillarysphere"and"seismograph",andtheprinciplesformanufacturingtheseinstrumentsarestillwidelyused.Especiallyforseismographs,similarinstrumentswerenotinventedinEuropeuntilmorethan1,700yearslater.Hisexplanationofthecauseofthelunareclipseintheastronomicalmasterpiece"Lingxian"madehimthefirstpersonintheworldtoscientificallyrevealthecauseofthelunareclipse.
Medicine
EasternHanDynastyisanimportantperiodfortheestablishmentoftraditionalChinesemedicine.HuaTuo,afamousdoctorinthelateEasternHanDynasty,wasthefirstsurgeonevertouseanesthesiatechnologytoperformsurgicaltreatmentonpatients.Thiswasaveryremarkableachievementinthefeudalerawhenmedicinewasrelativelybackward.The"WuQinXi"createdbyhimisChina'sfirstsetofgymnasticfitnessactivities."TreatiseonFebrileandMiscellaneousDiseases"byZhangZhongjing,anativeofNanyang,isanimmortalworkinthehistoryofChinesemedicineandhasbecomethemainfounderofChinesemedicine.Knownasthe"ancestorofmedicalprescriptions".
Painting
IntheEasternHanDynasty,calligraphyandpaintingwerenotsimplyusedastextandgraphicsymbols.Theirartisticstatusgraduallyemerged,althoughtherearenotmanyartworkshandeddownintheEasternHanDynastytoday.,ButyoucanstillgetaglimpseofthestyleandfeaturesofHanculturefromit.
Literature
EasternHanDynastygreatlyprosperedConfucianism,Taixueisfullofscholars,andtheacademicatmosphereisstrong.Therefore,theEasternHanDynastyoccupiesaveryprominentpositioninthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyandcultureinChinesehistory,andhasachievedunprecedentedgreatness.Achievement.
Inaddition,the"ShuowenJiezi"writtenbyXuShen,knownastheancestorofWenzongZi,becametheoriginatorofthestudyofChinesecharacters,sofuturegenerationsmustfirstread"Shuowen"whenstudyingChinesecharacters.
History
ThemostimportanthistoricalworkintheEasternHanDynastyis"HanShu"byBanGu.TheBookofHanoriginatedfromLiuBang,theemperoroftheHanDynasty,andendedwithEmperorPingandWangMang.ItwrotethehistoryoftheWesternHanDynastyformorethantwohundredyearsandwasthefirsthistoryofChina.
Religion
Buddhism
BuddhismwasfirstintroducedtoChinaTheexacttimeisnotclearsofar,butithasbecomeapublicopinionthatitwasintroducedtoChinaduringtheHanDynastyatthelatest.Accordingtorecords,inthefirstyearofthefirstyearofEmperorAioftheHanDynasty(thefirst2years),thediscipleofDr.Jinglu,theenvoyofDaYueshi,theenvoyofthekinggavethe"SutraoftheBuddha".InthetenthyearofYongpingintheEasternHanDynasty(67years),becausetheMingemperorLiuzhuangYemengJinrenwentwest,CaiYanandQinJingweresenttoTianzhutoprayforBuddhism.Cai,QinandothersusedwhitehorsestocarrybackmanyBuddhastatuesandBuddhistscriptures,andbroughtbacktwoseniormonksfromTianzhuSheMoTeng,ZhuFalan,whotheymetontheway.EmperorHanMingorderedtobuildamonasteryinthestyleofTianzhufortwohighmonkstolivein,andnamedthemonastery"WhiteHorseTemple"torememberthemeritsoftheWhiteHorseBuddhism.Later,twomonkstranslatedthe"Forty-twoChapters"intoChinese.SincetheintroductionofBuddhism,ithasbeenfavoredbythehighestrulingclass.FromChuKingLiuYing,EmperorHanMingtoEmperorHuan,theyareallgoodBuddhas.ThiswillinevitablyplayacertainroleinexpandingtheinfluenceofBuddhisminsociety.AfterEmperorHuan,therewereRuorong's"DaqiBuddhaTemple"and"DaqiBuddhaTemple."
InthetwentyyearsfromthesecondyearofEmperorHuan'sJianhe(148)tothefourthyearofLingdiJianning(171),AnShigaotranslated"AnBanShouYiJing"and"YinZhi"EnteringClassics,“TheTwelveDoorClassics,”“LittleTwelveDoorClassics,”“OneHundredSixtyClassics”andsoon.ThetranslatedscripturesaremainlybasedontheclassicsonZen,withabriefintroductiontoAbhidhamma.ZhizhecametoLuoyanginthelastyearsofEmperorHuan,andtranslated"PrajnaRoadJourney","BanzhouSamadhiSutra","ShouShurangamaSamadhiSutra"andsoonatthetimeofEmperorHuan.ZhuFoshuo,AnXuan,ZhiYao,andKangMengxiang,whowerethesametwotranslatorsasAnShigaoandZhiJian,alsohavetheirowninterpretations.InadditiontothetranslatorsfromtheWesternRegions,ShamenYanfodiaooftheHanDynastyisalsoanoutstandingpersonwhoparticipatedinthetranslationwork.
PrimitiveTaoism
UndertheinfluenceofBuddhism,alchemiststookCultivation,guidingtheqi,longevityoflife,immortallongevity,sacrificeofghostsandgods,figurineamulet,witchcraftandsuperstition,etc.aremixedwitheachother,andarelinkedwith"Laozi"toformprimitiveTaoism.The"TaiPingJing"isthefirstDaoistclassic,whichappearedinthetimeofEmperorShunoftheHanDynasty.ZhangJiaoclaimedtobea"greatandwiseteacher"andfoundedtheTaipingTaoistway.HeusedhiskneesandbowstopassthefirstpassandFushuitocureillnessesasameansofpreaching.Itwasdeclaredthat"theskyisdead,theyellowskywillstand,andtheageisinJiazi,theworldwillbeprosperous",andlaunchedtheYellowTurbanuprising.
ThedoctrineofWudoumidaoissimilartothatofTaipingdao,anditsfounderisZhangLingfromPeiren.ZhangLingwroteaTaoistbookduringEmperorShun'sreign.ThosewhoreceivetheTaowillproducefivebucketsofrice,soitiscalledthefivebucketsofrice.AttheendoftheEasternHanDynasty,theWudouRiceRoadwasmainlyactiveinYongandYizhou,anditsbasewasinHanzhong.AfterZhangLing'sdeath,hissonZhangHengpreachedhisteachings,andZhangHengdiedandhissonZhangLufollowed.ZhangLutook"Laozi"asthemainclassicoftheFiveDouMidao,andannotatedit,called"LaoziXiangerNote".TheTaoism,Yin-YangandFiveElements,andmagicalmagicintheHancultureareorganicallyintegratedwiththebeliefsofSouthwestminorityethnicgroups,formingChina'snativereligionTaoism.InthehistoricaldocumentsoftheHanandJinDynasties,TaoismofZhangLingwasoftencalled"GhostTao",anditsTaoistswerecalled"GuiZu".ThedirectoriginofZhangLingzheng'sDaoofMightyAllianceistheprimitivewitchreligionoftheDiqiangpeopleinBashu-GhostDao.OnesaidthatthetruefounderofWudouMiDaowasZhangXiu.AfterZhangLukilledZhangXiuandseizedtherighttoteach,heentrustedZhangLingtocreateeducation.
TaoismisinfluencedbyBuddhismintroducedintoChina.Therefore,theyalsorepentoftheirsins,persuadeotherstodogood,ororganizepublicwelfareundertakings-theseareallactsofcharity(dāna)highlyvaluedbyBuddhism.Otherprojectsincludeabstainingfromdrinkingalcohol,ordrinkingonlymoderatealcohol.IamafraidthatLaoTzu'sideaof"change"wasalsoinspiredbytheBuddha's"incarnation"(nirmāna-kāya).
Nationalities
IntheEasternHanDynasty,therewerefrequentforeignexchanges.ThefamouspersonwhowasfamousintheWesternRegionshadbeenstationedintheWesternRegionsformorethan30years,andsuccessivelydefeatedtheWesternRegionscontrolledbytheHuns.NotonlydidtheWesterncountriessubordinatetotheHanDynastyonebyone,butalsoopeneduptheculturalexchangesbetweentheEastandtheWest.Duringthisperiod,healsosentGanYingtotheGreatQinKingdomintheWesternRegions.Althoughhewasunsuccessful,hisfootprintshavereachedthecountriesofthePersianGulf.
Inaddition,theEasternHanDynastydestroyedtheNorthXiongnuin1991.TheSouthernHunsareattachedtotheHanDynasty.In216AD,thelastHuchuquanShanyuoftheSouthernHunswenttoYechengtovisitCaoCao.CaoCaodividedtheSouthernHunsintofiveparts.TheXiongnuKhanateceasedtoexist,andtheNorthernForeignTroublesthathadplaguedtheHanDynastyforhundredsofyearsfinallycametoanend.
TheXiongnu
SouthernXiongnu
Jianwutwenty-twoIntheyearof(46years),astrugglebrokeoutbetweentheXiongnuaristocrats,whoweresuspiciousofeachother,andcracksappeared.WiththeadditionofdroughtlocustsontheMongoliangrasslandsforyears,"humanandlivestockfamine,thedeathwastoohalf",theXiongnusplitintotwoparts,thenorthandthesouth.LiuXiuacceptedtheattachmentoftheSouthernHunsandmadethemliveintheclouds.TheEasternHanDynastygovernmentprovidedtheSouthernHunswithacertainamountofgrain,cattle,horses,silkandsilkeveryyear.NandanYuzesenthisservantsintothedynasty,anddividedthetribesintotheeightbordercountiesofBeidi,Shuofang,Wuyuan,Yunzhong,Dingxiang,Yanmen,Daijun,andXihetoassisttheEasternHanDynastyindefendingagainsttheintrusionoftheNorthernHuns.
ThebattleoftheEasternHanDynastytodestroytheNorthernHunsandtheNorthernHuns'westwardmigration(3photos)
NorthernHuns
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AftertheSouthernHunswereannexedtotheEasternHanDynasty,theNorthernHunswhoremainedontheMongoliangrasslandsweregreatlyweakened.DuringthewarbetweentheNorthandtheSouth,theyweredefeatedseveraltimesbytheSouthernHuns.Inthe16thyearofYongping(73years),theEasternHanDynastymadeabigcounterattack,DouGudividedthetroopsintofourgroups,penetratedintothehinterlandoftheNorthernHuns,achievedgreatmilitaryvictory,andchasednorthtothePuLeiSea.(XinjiangBarkunLake),andstayinYiwuluCity(XinjiangHami).
BythetimeofEmperorZhangoftheHanDynasty,theNorthernHunsbecameweakerandweaker,andhundredsofthousandsofpeoplesurrenderedintothecongestion.InthefirstyearofYongyuan(89),DouXian,GengBingandothersledtheHanarmytojointheSouthernHunstomarchnorthwardandfoughtwithBeidanyu.LienChanwonthebattle,andthedescendantsweremorethan200,000people..Inthenexttwoyears,theNorthernHunscontinuedtofailandmigratedwestward,afterwhichpartoftheNorthernHunsmovedacrossCentralAsiaandWestAsiatoEurope.
WesternRegions
WhenXinmang,theXiongnucontrolledtheWesternRegions.(29years)inthefifthyearofthefoundingofWu,DouRongchengLikangwasappointedasthechiefcaptainoftheWesternRegions,whobelongedtothe55countriesoftheWesternRegions.Inthefuture,Shache,Shanshan,Cheshi,Yanqiandothercountriessuccessivelysentenvoysastribute,andrequestedthecentralgovernmenttosetupguardsintheWesternRegions.However,LiuXiuwasunabletomanagetheWesternRegionsduetotheinitialdecisionoftheCentralPlains,sohereturnedthewaiter.Afterthat,theWesternRegionswereinastateofchaos,andmostoftheregimesbelongedtotheHuns.
In73AD,BanChaofirstarrivedinShanshan.BanChao,withthedeterminationto"donotenterthetiger'slair,andwinthetiger'schild",ledhismentoattackandkillmorethan100NorthernHunsenvoys,andShanShanwasshocked.Later,hebroughtKhotanbacktotheCentralCommittee.Inthespringofthesecondyear,BanchaoabolishedtheShuleKingoftheKuchapeopleestablishedbytheNorthernHuns,andaccordingtothewishesoftheShulepeople,hereplacedtheoldprinceofShule.AfterBanChao'sresolutestruggle,theforcesoftheNorthernHunswereeliminatedonebyoneintheSouthernDao,andthecountriesoftheSouthernDaowerefreedfromtheruleoftheNorthernHuns.
BanChao’sactivitiesintheWesternRegionshavemadehistoricalcontributionstoenhancethefriendshipbetweentheHanpeopleandthepeopleofallethnicgroupsintheWesternRegions,strengthenthepoliticalandeconomictiesbetweentheCentralPlainsandtheWesternRegions,andmaintaintheunityofmulti-ethniccountries.TheBanchaozhanwassuccessfulbecauseitmetthedesireoftheHanpeopletorestorerelationswiththeWesternRegions,andthedesireofthepeopleofallethnicgroupsintheWesternRegionstogetridoftheslaveryoftheNorthernHunsandstrengthenthehistoricalconnectionwiththeHanpeople.
Wuhuan
In46AD,theHunssplitinternally,andthevariousministriesofWuhuantooktheopportunitytogetridofthecontroloftheHuns.AftertheSouthernHunswereannexedtotheEasternHanDynasty,WuhuanalsoexpressedsurrendertotheEasternHangovernment.LiuXiufeng,HaoDan,andmorethan80chiefsofallsizeswerethechiefsofKingHou,whomadethemliveinthetencountiesontheborderofYouandBinErzhou.TheyrecruitedWuhuanpeopletobeattachedtotheminNingCounty,ShangguCounty(northwestXuanhuaCounty,Hebei).)TheWuhuanschoollieutenantwasappointedtoguardandsupervisethevariousministriesofWuhuan.TheEasternHanDynastyprovidedfoodandclothingtotheWuhuanpeople,andusedtheirabilitytorideandshoottohelpthemdefendtheborder.ThevarioustribesofWuhuanguardedthefrontiersoftheEasternHanDynastyforgenerations,andinfactbecameahereditarymercenaryarmy.UntiltheWeiandJinDynasties,Wuhuancavalrywasstillfamousintheworld.
Xianbei
AftertheSouthernXiongnuandWuhuansuccessivelyreturnedtotheEasternHanDynasty,thevarioustribesofXianbeialsodispatchedtheirenvoys.(54)inthe30thyearofJianwu,XianbeiacceptedthetitleoftheCentralCommitteeoftheEasternHanDynasty,andwasalsounderthesupervisionofLieutenantWuhuan.TheEasternHanDynastyalsoboughttheadultsoftheXianbeitribeandmadethemspecializeindealingwiththeNorthernHuns.Inthemid-EasternHanDynasty,theremnantsoftheNorthernHunsmovedwestward,andtheXianbeitooktheopportunitytooccupythehomelandoftheHuns.Theymergedwiththemorethan100,000Hunsscatteredinthesameplace,andtheirpowerquicklybecamestronger.Fromthenon,theXianbeipeoplegotridoftheirattachmenttotheEasternHanDynastyandbecameathreatforceinthenorthduringthemiddleandlateEasternHanDynasty.
Qiangnationality
IntheearlyEasternHanDynasty,LiuXiurestoredtheQiangschoollieutenanttoprotecttheQiangtribesafterheflattenedtheseparatistforcesinLongxi.County(easternGansuandwesternShaanxi).In58AD,afterDouGuandothersbrokethroughtheunsurrenderedShaoDangtribesinQinghai,theymovedtotheGuanzhongarea.InordertoisolatetheQiangtribeslivinginthehinterlandfromtheunsubmittedQianginQinghai,andpreventthemfromunitingresistance,theEasternHangovernmentestablishedTuntiandistrictsinXiningandLedu,Qinghaitoday,andstationedtroopsforlong-termcultivation.FromthetimeofEmperorHan'an,theQiangpeoplelaunchedthreelarge-scaleuprisings,whichlastedfor50to60years.ThestruggleoftheQiangpeopleechoedthepeasantuprisingsinvariousplaces,anddealtafatalblowtotheEasternHanDynasty.Duetotheprolongedbrutalwar,theentirenorthwesternregionwasdevastatedandsocialproductionsufferedtremendousdamage.
Barbarians
DuringthesocialturmoiloftheWesternHanDynastyandXinmang,alargenumberofHanpeopleflowedintotheWulingMountainsinwesternHunantoescapethewar,livinginamixedplacewiththelocalpeople.AftertheestablishmentoftheEasternHanDynasty,thelocalcountiesandcountiesalsoclashedwiththelocalpeopleinordertoregaincontroloftheseexiles.Inthetwenty-thirdyearofJianwu(47years),thelocalsinWulingrebelledandattackedthelocalcountiesandcounties.EmperorGuangwusentLiuShangandledmorethan10,000troopstocountertherebellion,buttheentirearmywaswipedout.Inthesecondyear,SupervisorsLiSongandMaChengmarchedintosuppression,buttheystillcouldnotwin.Inthethirdyear,GeneralFuboMaYuantooktheinitiativetoinviteYingandledmorethan40,000peopletoattack.Becausethesoldiersinthenorthwereunaccustomedtothesoilandtheterrain,mostoftheHan'scasualtieswerekilledandinjured,andMaYuanalsodiedoftheepidemic.Intheend,thelocalrebellioninWuling,whichlastedthreeyears,wasputdown.
Afterthemid-EasternHanDynasty,duetoincreasedcontrolandsearchofthebarbarians,theresultwasagreatuprisingofthebarbariansinvariousplaces.ThecontinuousstruggleoftheBarbarianpeoplecontinueduntilthefalloftheEasternHanDynasty.
Theeconomyandcultureofthe"SouthwesternYi"areahasdevelopedgreatly,andtheproductsareveryrich.InthewestofYizhouCounty,therearemanyAilaoyipeople.InthetwelfthyearofYongping(69years),thekingofAilao,Liumao,sentmorethan550,000peopletotheEasternHandynasty.EmperorMingoftheHansetupAilaoandBonancountiesinhisplace,aswellasthewesterncapitalofYizhou.尉所属六县合建为永昌郡,自此将整个云贵地区纳入版图。东汉时期,四川、云南西部地区少数民族诸部,都相继归附东汉,汉文化传入当地后,改变了当地风俗,提高了当地的经济文化水平。
外交
东亚
朝鲜半岛
在东汉末年,朝鲜半岛北部先后兴起高句丽、百济两个国家,两国的发展水平虽略有不同,但都处在由原始社会向阶级社会过渡阶段。他们在东汉的强烈影响下,并没有向奴隶社会发展,而是模仿汉朝的剥削方式和政治制度,从而走上了封建化的道路。
日本列岛
在日本列岛上居住着大和民族的先祖,东汉时有一百多个小国。建武中元二年(57年),日本国王遣使入都城洛阳进贡,愿为汉臣藩,求汉皇赐名。汉以其人矮,遂赐“倭国”。其王又求汉皇赐封,光武帝又赐其为“倭奴王”,并赐封“汉委奴国王金印”金印。这颗金印已于1784年在日本九州志贺岛出土,成了日本国宝,并作为中日两国最早友好交往的证明,今收藏于福冈市博物馆。
南亚和越南
东汉时期,印度、缅甸等国与中国的关系也更为密切。据记载:永元六年(94年),永昌境外的敦忍乙王莫延曾派遣使者来访,双方互赠礼物。公元97年,缅甸北部的掸国王雍由调派遣使者向汉王朝赠送珍宝。东汉政府则以金印回赠。永宁元年(120年),雍由调再次遣使来汉,并“献乐及幻人”,缅甸的音乐和杂技,在当时深受欢迎。自从佛教传入中国以后,汉与印度的联系就日趋密切。特别是汉明帝派人去印度取经以后,印度的僧侣大量来到中国,译佛经,传佛学,对中国的文化思想产生了重大影响。
东汉时,越南北部设置交趾、九真、日南三郡。东汉初,锡光任交趾太守,任延任九真太守,教越民耕种技术,设立学校,传播先进文化,对改变当地落后状态起了很大促进作用。但后来苏充任交趾太守,对越人加重剥削,引起越人的强烈不满。建武十六年(40年),交趾征侧、征贰起兵反抗,得到九真、日南等地人的响应,很快攻占六十多座城池。征侧、征贰自立为王,这就是越南历史上著名的二征王。二征王不久就被伏波将军马援镇压。东汉在镇压二征之后,在政治、经济等方面进行了一些改革,如穿渠溉田,发展农业生产,废除残暴的“越律”十余条等。东汉先进的经济文化给越南以深刻的影响。
西方
自张骞出使西域之后,通过丝绸之路,汉朝与中亚、西亚建立了经常的贸易关系。西汉末年,丝绸之路荒废,到东汉初,永元九年(97年),班超曾派副使甘英出使大秦国(罗马帝国),一直到达条支海(波斯湾)。也是完整的丝绸之路路线,西端从欧洲,东端到东汉京师洛阳。延熹九年(166年),大秦商人由海路来到东汉京师洛阳,以大秦王安敦的名义,觐见汉桓帝并赠送汉桓帝一些礼物。此后汉与罗马的贸易关系更为频繁。
东汉时期的欧亚大陆(4张)
皇帝世系
庙号 | 谥号 | 名讳 | 在位年份 | 年号 | 年号始终 | 在位时长(按年号算) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
世祖 | 光武皇帝 | 刘秀 | 25年—57年 | 建武 | 25年—56年 | 33年 |
建武中元 | 56年—57年 | |||||
显宗 | 孝明皇帝 | 刘庄 | 57年—75年 | 永平 | 58年—75年 | 18年 |
肃宗 | 孝章皇帝 | 刘炟 | 75年—88年 | 建初 | 76年—84年 | 13年 |
元和 | 84年—87年 | |||||
章和 | 87年—88年 | |||||
穆宗 (后除) | 孝和皇帝 | 刘肇 | 88年—105年 | 永元 | 89年—105年 | 17年 |
元兴 | 105年 | |||||
孝殇皇帝 | 刘隆 | 105年—106年 | 延平 | 106年 | 1年 | |
孝德皇帝 | 刘庆 | - | - | - | 0年 汉安帝追尊为“孝德皇” | |
恭宗 (后除) | 孝安皇帝 | 刘祜 | 106年—125年 | 永初 | 107年—113年 | 19 |
元初 | 114年—119年 | |||||
永宁 | 120年—121年 | |||||
建光 | 121年—122年 | |||||
延光 | 122年—125年 | |||||
北乡侯 | 刘懿 | 125年 | - | - | 0年 一般不认为是东汉皇帝之一 | |
敬宗 (后除) | 孝顺皇帝 | 刘保 | 125年—144年 | 永建 | 126年—132年 | 19年 |
阳嘉 | 132年—135年 | |||||
永和 | 136年—141年 | |||||
汉安 | 142年—144年 | |||||
建康 | 144年 | |||||
孝冲皇帝 | 刘炳 | 144年—145年 | 永嘉 | 145年 | 1年 | |
孝质皇帝 | 刘缵 | 145年—146年 | 本初 | 146年 | 1年 | |
孝穆皇帝 | 刘开 | - | - | - | 0年 追尊为孝穆皇 | |
孝崇皇帝 | 刘翼 | - | - | - | 0年 追尊为孝崇皇 | |
威宗 (后除) | 孝桓皇帝 | 刘志 | 146年—167年 | 建和 | 147年—149年 | 21年 |
和平 | 150年 | |||||
元嘉 | 151年—152年 | |||||
永兴 | 153年—154年 | |||||
永寿 | 155年—158年 | |||||
延熹 | 158年—167年 | |||||
永康 | 167年 | |||||
孝元皇帝 | 刘淑 | - | - | - | 0年 汉灵帝追尊 | |
孝仁皇帝 | 刘苌 | - | - | - | 0年 汉灵帝追尊 | |
孝灵皇帝 | 刘宏 | 168年—189年 | 建宁 | 168年—172年 | 21年 | |
熹平 | 172年—178年 | |||||
光和 | 178年—184年 | |||||
中平 | 184年—189年 | |||||
弘农怀王 | 刘辩 | 189年 | 光熹 | 189年 | 1年 | |
昭宁 | 189年 | |||||
孝献皇帝 | 刘协 | 189年—220年 | 永汉 | 189年—189年 | 31年 | |
中平 | 189年—189年 | |||||
初平 | 190年—193年 | |||||
兴平 | 194年—195年 | |||||
建安 | 196年—220年 | |||||
延康 | 220年 |
注释:
在汉顺帝之前本来是阎太后(汉安帝皇后)拥立的(前)少帝刘懿,刘懿做了半年皇帝即死亡,顺帝趁机即位。史书和学者都没有把刘懿归于汉朝皇帝一类,有的则称为北乡侯。
献帝以前是(后)少帝刘辩,当了四个月皇帝,而且还有许多时间都在避难之中。史书和学者都没有把刘辩归于汉朝皇帝一类。但董卓毒杀少帝刘辩以后,改谥为弘农怀王,故,世称(后)少帝为”弘农王“。
蜀汉昭烈皇帝所上谥为“孝愍皇帝”,但上谥时刘协并未去世。
建安中,诏除显宗以下诸帝庙号。
永汉元年(189)十二月,诏除光熹、昭宁、永汉三号,复称中平六年。
刘庆、开、翼、淑、苌之帝谥,为汉安、桓、灵三帝追崇。