National Academy of Sciences

Development History

On March 3, 1863, the former US President Abraham Lincoln signed a bill to announce the establishment of the National Academy of Sciences (United States, NAS) . At that time, the United States was in the Civil War, and the government urgently needed to build a scientific consulting organization, and the National Academy of Sciences was born in response to the times. Therefore, this think tank and advisory service organization was born very smoothly. On March 3, 1863, Massachusetts Senator Henry Wilson proposed the idea of ​​forming the National Academy of Sciences in the Senate Chamber. The Senate spoke orally The bill was passed by a vote. A few hours later, the bill was passed by Congress. In the evening, the bill was passed to President Lincoln. President Lincoln signed the bill, giving it legal status, and the National Academy of Sciences was officially born. This academy of sciences is entrusted and managed by a statutory organization, and since 1863, no matter which government department requests it, it must conduct investigations, tests, experiments and reports on any discipline of science and art.

Although 1865 was at the end of the Civil War, at this time it could not provide a good environment for the establishment of the Academy of Sciences, but the government still tried its best to find a source of demand for this young scientific consulting organization. Various problems after the end of the war required solutions. Therefore, in January 1867, the Academy of Sciences was asked to evaluate the feasibility of replacing the fallen metal blocks with the method of galvanizing as the headstones of the soldiers who died in the war. . As a result, the Academy of Sciences, based on the experiment done by the Zinc and Iron Association, established an Electric Current Action Committee, as described in the report: "...Connect a piece of zinc and iron with the two ends of a galvanometer wire. They are inserted into the water, and then slowly injected with sulfuric acid to increase the current from zinc to iron. When the zinc dissolves quickly, the iron is not affected..." The committee concluded that the recommended zinc and the shed iron head Stone will not last forever. I don’t know whether Congress was directly affected by the recommendations of the Academy of Sciences. It issued a decree in 1872 that the foundation stones in the national cemetery should be made of "durable stone."

During the 1860s, 1970s, and 1980s, the Academy of Sciences gave reports on many types of topics. The following list is only a part of the committees established at the request of the government. It can be seen from this list that the topics studied by the committees cover a wide range of topics. These committees are: "Detecting extracts and eliminating fakes" (1866); "Metric units in each state" (1866); "Methods for distinguishing cattle hair from wool products" (1875); "Waterproofing of certain currencies" (1875); "Declaration of the Restoration of Independence" (1880); "The Quartz Plate in the Sugar Meter that Determines the Quantity of Sugar" (1887), etc. Some subjects required by the Academy of Sciences may be trivial, but they reflect the concerns of an agricultural country in the process of industrialization. Perhaps during this period of time, the most prominent contribution made by the Academy of Sciences to the country was to propose the establishment of the American Geographical Survey and to assist in the establishment of a national forest service organization. In 1878, the Academy of Sciences wanted to evaluate five independent survey results concerning public land in western Mississippi, which was subsequently transferred to the military and civilians. Therefore, the Academy of Sciences established a plan to investigate and map the United States, and authorized the design of a plan to investigate the western region. The committee also recommended the establishment of a new government agency, the United States Department of Geographical Survey, under the Department of the Interior. A Congress bill was subsequently passed, and the main recommendations of the committee took effect. This is the first time that the Academy of Sciences has assisted in the establishment of a scientific government agency.

About 20 years later, in 1895, the Academy of Sciences was asked to explain the generally neglected issue of American forest conditions. Therefore, a committee on reasonable US forest land policies was established. In its concluding report submitted to the Ministry of the Interior in May 1897, the committee recommended that part of the military should be deployed in a short period of time to protect the national forest from fires and natural disasters. The committee recommends that the national forest should be monitored and patrolled for a long time to better protect it. After 10 years of political debate, the recommendations of the Academy of Sciences were finally written into law in 1905, and the Forest Service Department was established under the Ministry of Agriculture.

Until the 1890s, after numerous successes in surveys, forestry, and other research, the government no longer made frequent demands on the Academy of Sciences. This relative reduction in research activities has made some members of the Academy of Sciences attractive. However, the Academy of Sciences quickly walked out of this dormant period, and it was precisely because of these activists that the Academy of Sciences regained its former vitality, and this also paved the way for the establishment of the National Research Council under the Academy of Sciences.

In 1924, Florence Sabin became the first woman to be elected to the National Academy of Sciences.

In 1965, David Blackwell became the first African-American to be elected to the National Academy of Sciences. In the circle of Chinese scholars, Lin Kesheng can be regarded as the first scholar to be awarded the title of an academician of the National Academy of Sciences.

In 1743, Benjamin Franklin established the American Philosophical Society (APS). 37 years later, the National Academy of Arts and the National Academy of Sciences were also established, and 60 years after their establishment, the National Association for the Advancement of Science was also born. By the mid-19th century, these organizations joined the Smithsonian Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).

The most direct origin of the National Academy of Sciences can be traced back to some scientists in the early 1850s, most of whom came from Cambridge. This group began to formally assemble in 1853 and called themselves "Science Wanderers"-they mocked themselves and compared themselves to beggars and Naples wanderers. Their original members were Alexander Dallas Bache, director of the Coastal Survey, natural scientist Louis Agassiz, Benjamin Peirce, professor of mathematics and astronomy at Harvard, Benjamin Gould, astronomer, and Cornelius Felton, professor of Greek and Latin at Harvard. Soon after, other members joined, including Joseph Henry, who may be regarded as the leader of American scientists at the time. But it was Bache who came up with an open and clear idea about the establishment of a national academy of sciences.

As the resigning leader of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Bache publicly proposed in 1851 that the federal government should establish an organization to promote the development of science across the country. Bache advocates the establishment of "a scientific research institute that can guide scientific research activities." This organization will serve as the central organization for government advisory science and technology. In 1858, Agassiz outlined the structure and organization of the Academy of Sciences in a personal letter.

The civil war that broke out in 1861 brought various demands and prompted the formation of a scientific consulting organization. Many citizens wanted to contribute to the war, submitted many personal inventions, and put forward some related suggestions to the government. To expedite the evaluation of these recommendations, Henry suggested that the Navy Department set up an advisory office to test new weapons. In February 1863, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles agreed to Henry's plan. At the same time, a standing committee consisting of Henry, Bache and Admiral Charies Henry Davis was formed. At the same time, Agassiz received the support of Massachusetts Congressman Henry Wilson. With the help of Wilson, Agassiz, Bache, Peirce, and Gould re-drawn a plan, written by Davis, and proposed the establishment of the National Academy of Sciences. Wilson submitted the bill to Parliament on February 20, and the bill was passed on March 3. After that, the bill passed the approval of the House Representative and was written into the law by President Lincoln. In this way, the National Academy of Sciences was formally established.

As of 2003, the National Academy of Sciences has 1922 academicians of the National Academy of Sciences, 93 academicians for life, and 341 academicians of foreign nationalities. Among them, more than 170 academicians have won Nobel Prizes. The current academicians elect new academicians every year.

The National Academy of Sciences is composed of three parts: the National Research Council, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. Established in 1916, 1964 and 1970. Recently, the Institute of Medicine changed its name to the National Academy of Medicine.

From the initial 50 members, the National Academy of Sciences has grown to 2,250 members, including 452 members are foreign academicians (that is, scholars with nationalities other than the United States), and about 200 academicians have won the Nobel Prize.

Basic information

It is not a government department, but a private, non-profit, and honorary autonomous organization of scientists. There is no research institution under it.

With the National Research Council (NRC) as the executive agency, its work procedures are usually authorized by a special committee of the US Congress or proposed by the federal government. The management committee of the National Research Council determines the responsibility for contemporary science and technology. Research projects on problems, and organize the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, the Academy of Medicine and other experts across the country to form special committees and groups to conduct research and provide answers.

The National Academy of Sciences is composed of academicians, honorary academicians and foreign informal academicians. Foreign informal academicians can become academicians when they obtain American citizenship. An annual meeting is held every April in Washington. The National Academy of Sciences stipulates that the total number of new academicians elected each year is at most 60.

In recent years, the American Academy of Sciences has newly elected about 72 academicians each year. The US National Academy of Sciences now has nearly 20 Chinese academicians.

Courses taught

The National Academy of Sciences has mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, geophysics, biochemistry, cell and developmental biology, physiological sciences, Neurobiology, Botany, Genetics, Population Biology, Evolution and Ecology, Engineering, Applied Biology, Applied Physics and Mathematical Sciences, Medical Genetics, Hematology and Oncology, Medical Physiology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medicine Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Anthropology, Psychology, Social and Political Science, Economic Sciences, etc. It is divided into five groups: mathematical science, biological science, applied and engineering science, medical science, and social science.

Early work

Shortly after the founding meeting of the National Academy of Sciences was held on April 22, 1863, the National Academy of Sciences received its first request for consultation. The Minister of Finance Salmon P. Chase needs a research report on the issue of "consistency in weight, size, and coins, taking into account domestic and international commerce." Therefore, the National Academy of Sciences established a "weight, size and coin committee" to undertake research tasks. After several meetings in Philadelphia, Cambridge and Washington, this committee submitted a report to the Secretary of the Treasury on January 7, 1864. The report recommends that a thorough investigation be conducted on the currency and size systems of other countries, and the relevant content of the subject should also be investigated. Interestingly, after discussion, the committee felt that the United States should accept the metric system of weight and size.

The "Committee on Weights, Dimensions, and Coins" is a model for the next activities of the National Academy of Sciences. There are three reasons for this. First, in the process of investigating current issues, it establishes a way of working, which will provide a model for the research work of most academies of sciences. Second, it submits its conclusions and recommendations to the requesting department in the form of a report. The last point is that the "specific subject committee" form it adopts not only conforms to the recommendations made by the President of the National Academy of Sciences Bache in the first annual report to the U.S. Congress, but has also become a major part of the research department of the National Academy of Sciences. And the joint pioneer of the subsequent establishment of the National Research Council.

Although the National Academy of Sciences was established during the Civil War, its first research work had nothing to do with the war. However, a request for advice related to the war soon appeared. Soon after the "Weight, Dimensions, and Coin Committee" was established, the Navy Department requested at least three studies, two of which were directly related to joint fleet combat capabilities. On May 8, Admiral Charles H. Davis, who is both a naval officer and a member of the Academy of Sciences, asked the Academy of Sciences to develop a method for the Navy to protect the bottom of metal-clad ships from sea water and other Hurt. In this way, a "Committee for Protecting the Bottom of Metal Ships" came into being in March 1863 and was given the mission of providing advice to the Naval Committee. In January of the following year, the committee submitted a concise report. The report could have recommended an uncertain solution, but it proposed to conduct a more in-depth investigation. However, they failed to do so, and the work of the committee was nothing.

Although the committee ultimately failed to design an effective method to protect the bottom of steel ships, the fault was not with the committee itself, but because of the limitations of the technology at the time. In the 50 years since the work of the committee came to an end, the Admiralty is still studying different types of hull coatings, trying to find the most effective protective ingredients.

On the same day that Admiral Davis asked the Academy of Sciences to undertake the research work to protect the bottom of the joint armored fleet, he also asked the Academy of Sciences to "study the magnetic deviation of the armored ships and make a report." Therefore, the Academy of Sciences established the "Iron Armored Ship Magnetic Deviation Committee", which is usually called the "Compass Committee." Although most iron armored ships are made by plating the hull of wooden hull ships above the waterline with a layer of iron, some are made of iron or have iron-plated decks. The large amount of iron on the ship caused the compass to deviate from the direction. In this case, the Navy was plunged into uncertainty and potential danger. To this end, the Compass Committee must propose a way to correct the deviation of the compass. The committee submitted a 73-page detailed report in January 1864. The report recommended that a magnet should be placed in an appropriate position so as to counter the influence of iron on the compass on the ship. After making recommendations, the committee personally supervised the adjustment of the compass on the 27 joint ships from March to September 1864.

The reason why the Compass Committee is famous is not only the success of its research, but it also sets an example of a written report. This example is also the object of most research groups in the Academy of Sciences to follow.

The federal government, through the Congress and various departments, continuously put forward research requirements on a series of topics to the Academy of Sciences at the end of the Civil War and after the war. In 1867, the Academy of Sciences received a request from the Department of Operations to advise on how much metal foundation stones to use on soldiers' gravestones. In this way, the Academy of Sciences, which has greatly expanded since its establishment in the Civil War, began to conduct research on keeping a memorial for those who sacrificed themselves for the victory of the war.

Publications

The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences is published by the National Academy of Sciences.

Miscellaneous

David Blackwell (David Blackwell) was the first African-American to be elected. He was elected as a Fellow in 1965.

Edward C. Pickering (Edward C. Pickering) is the youngest elected scientist, only 26 years old when he was elected a member of the academician in 1873.

Florence R. Sabin (Florence R. Sabin) was the first female scientist elected, and was elected an academician in 1925.

Chinese nationality

The National Academy of Sciences now has 21 Chinese nationality academicians, according to the time of employment, they are:< /p>

(deceased academician)

1982:Hua Luogeng (deceased)

1984< b>:Xia Nai (deceased)

1985:Tan Jiazhen (deceased)

1986: Feng Depei (deceased)

1994: Jia Lanpo (deceased) Zhang Deci (deceased)

2006:< /b>Yuan Longping (deceased)

(Current Academician)

1979:Li Yuanzhe

1987: Zhou Guangzhao

2003:Chen Zhu

2004: Xu Lizhi (Lap -Chee Tsui)

2006:Bai Chunli

2007:Zhang Qifa, Li Aizhen

2010:Zhou Zhonghe

2011:Li Jiayang

2012:Zhang Jie and Dong Xinnian Etc.

2013: Zhi Zhiming, Lu Yuming, Shi Yigong

2014: Yang Huanming

2015: Wu Hao

2016 Year: An Zhisheng

2019: Gao Fu, Yan Ning

2020: Cao Xiaofeng

Hong Kong includes:

1999: James Mirrlees (elected foreign academician working unit is the Chinese University of Hong Kong)

Chinese academician

2011

Luo Liqun