Warring States

Socialchangeh3>

IntheWarringStatesPeriod,irontoolsbegantoappearandused,replacingstonetoolsandbeingusedsimultaneouslywithbronzes.Theprosperityofcommercepromotedthedevelopmentofcurrency,andthewell-fieldsystemintheSpringandAutumnPeriodwascancelled.Agriculturehasfurtherdeveloped,andthepopulationofallcountrieshasincreased.Theproductionlevelofthehandicraftindustryincludingironsmelting,bronzecasting,lacquerware,andsilkweavingindustrieshasbeensignificantlyimproved,andcommercialtradebetweencountrieshasbeenvigorouslydeveloped.Thecontradictionbetweenpopulationandresourceshasintensified.Thevassalstatesannexedthelandtofightforlivingspace,insteadofthepoliticalhegemonyintheSpringandAutumnPeriod.

Withthedevelopmentofwaterconservancy,theuseofironware,andthepromotionofcattlefarming,theeconomyoftheprincesdevelopedinthemiddleandlatespringandautumn,andthepoliticalsituationalsoproducedcorrespondingchanges.Theinfluenceoftheofficialsinthevassalstategraduallydeveloped,suchastheSanhuanofLu,theTianclanofQi,andtheLiuqingofJin.Theyusetheireconomicpowertocontrolandcarveupoffices,andfightwitheachothertoexpandtheirterritories.ThesixofficialsoftheJinDynastyfoughttotheend,leavingHan,Wei,andZhaothreefamilies.Inthe23rdyearofKingZhouWeilie(403BC),theKingofZhouofficiallyrecognizedthethreefamiliesasvassals.IntheeleventhyearofZhou'anKing(391BC),TianHeabolishedQiKangGongandestablishedhimselfasamonarch,whichwasalsorecognizedbytheZhouKing.ThevictoryoftheSanjinandTianclanannouncedthecruelpoliticallawofsurvivalofthestrongandeliminationoftheweak.Therefore,startingfromWei'sLiDireform,variouscountriesrushedtocarryoutareformmovementaimedatenrichingthecountryandstrengtheningthearmy.Thecoreofthereformistofixlaborersonthelandtoincreasethecountry'staxrevenue.Thedeepeningofsocialcivilizationhascausedtherulers'greedformaterialenjoymenttoswellrapidly.Themostdirectwaytoincreasetheamountofexploitationistoplundermoreland,andthemostconvenientwaytoplunderlandiswar.Therefore,therewerefrequentwarsduringthisperiod.

Thesedevelopmentshavealsochangedthesocialstructure.Thehereditaryhierarchywasdismantled,someformernobleslosttheirstatus,whileothersatthattimebecamerichthroughbusinessorotheropportunities,andevenbecameimportantfiguresinpoliticalgroups.Thebureaucracyhaschanged.

WarringStatesPolicy(22photos)

TheoreticalanalysisofthebipolarworldpointedoutthatduringtheWarringStatesperiod,Guanzhongwasagentrypoliticalformandaserfdomeconomicform,theCentralPlainswasaQingDynastyofficialpoliticalformandanagrarianeconomicform,whiletheSouthwasaprimitivetribalpoliticalandeconomicform,andChina’soverallsocietyTheformisthepoliticalformoftheQinggovernmentandtheeconomicformofthesubordinateagriculturalsystem.

QiQincontendsforhegemony

Duringthe200-yearperiodoftheWarringStatesperiod,withthesuccessivedeclineofWeiandChu(seethehistoricalstagesoftheWarringStates),theQiStateandHeDuetotheconfrontationbetweentheeastandthewestoftheQinKingdom,thetwocountriesofQinandQilaunchedastruggletowinoverothervassalsandisolateeachother,whileHan,Wei,Zhao,Chu,YanandothercountriesswayedinunitingQinagainstQiandunitingQiagainstQin..Atthistime,twofamouspoliticians-ZhangYiandGongsunYan,appeared,andtheywereconnectedhorizontallyandcombinedvertically.Thiskindofsituationisalsocalledverticalandhorizontal(verticalones,whenthepeopleareweak,theyattackonestrong;whilethosewhoarehorizontal,whenthingsarestrong,theyattacktheweakones).

ThepowerfulQinStatecontinuouslyexpandsitsterritorytotheeast.Fortyyears(previously329)ofKingZhouXian,ZhangYifromWeicametoQinandaskedQinHuiwenJuntomakeagoodrelationshipwithWeiandChu.Then,withthecooperationofWeiandChu,heattackedthenewcityofHeyiinSouthKorea.Yang,drovethearmytoLuoyang,tooktheemperortocommandtheprinces,andfinallyturnedbacktocapturetheterritoriesofWeiandChu,forcingtheprincesoftheworldtofightQintothewestandcompletethegreatcauseofbecomingking.ThisstrategywasinthemidstofKingQinHuiwen'sembarrassment,andZhangYiwaschosenashisguest.ZhangYirepeatedlyinstigatedtheQinarmytoattacktheStateofWeiandreturnedthelandthathehadtakentotheStateofWei,forcingtheStateofWeitoactonQinfirstandNashangPrefecture’s15countiestoQin,posingagreatthreattootherEasterncountries.ZhangYiwasappointedasQin’sstateminister..Intheforty-sixthyearofKingZhouXian'sforty-sixthyear(previously323),theWeiruledGongsunYan'sstrategytourgethefivekingdomsofWei,Han,Zhao,Yan,andZhongshantorecognizeeachotheraskings,anduniteagainstQin.Butsoon,theStateofChusenttroopstofightagainstWei,andGongsunYan'sstrategywasfrustrated.WeiXianghui'sactivitiestouniteQiandChualsofailedandwereexpelled.KingWeiHuiwashitbyQiandChu,andhadtoappointZhangYiasWeiXianginthe47thyearofKingZhouXian(322before).HewantedtounitethetroopsofQinandHantodefeatQiandChu.ButZhangYi'srealintentionwastoaskWeitomattertoQinfirst,andtoletotherprincesfollowsuit.KingWeiHuididnotfollowZhangYi'sopinion.WiththesupportofQi,Chu,Yan,Zhao,Hanandothercountries,inthesecondyearofKingZhouShenliang(319before),heexpelledZhangYiandnamedGongsunYanasWeiXiang.Inthefollowingyear,GongsunYanlaunchedthefivekingdomsofWei,Chu,Yan,Zhao,andHantoattackQinforthefirsttime,andwasdefeatedbyQinwiththekingofChuHuaiasthevertical.

Sincethen,QincontinuedtoattacktheThreeJins,andtookadvantageoftheopportunityofthemutualattackbetweentheKingdomofShuandtheKingdomofPakistan,dispatchedtroopstooccupytheentireterritoryofBashu,andobtainedawealthyrearbase.HanzhongCountyisdividedinto41counties.TheBashuregionwasdetermined,andtheQinStatebecameincreasinglyprosperousandpowerful.TheSichuanBasinisrichinnaturalresourcesandsuperioragriculturalconditions,whichlaidthefoundationfortheprosperityandunificationoftheQinStateinthefuture.

InthefiveyearsofKingZhouShen(316before),KingYansurrenderedthethronetothesonofXiangbang.Zizhiwaskingforthreeyears,andthecountrywasingreatturmoil.JiangjunCitywasattackedbyapartywiththeprince.ThepeoplecounterattackedandkilledthePrinceandPingheCity.Tensofthousandsdied.KingQiXuantooktheopportunitytosendtroopstoattacktheswallows,andinmorethanfiftydays,heattackedtheentireterritoryoftheYanKingdom.DuetothemasskillingofciviliansbytheQiarmy,theYanpeoplerebelledandtheQiarmywasforcedtoretreat.ButthisincidentprovedthatQiisstillquitepowerful.Atthesametime,thealliancebetweenQiandChustrengthenedQi'sabilitytocontendwithQin.

ThedeclineofChuState

ThefocusofthestrugglebetweenQinandQiistofightforChuState.ChuisanoldpowerintheSpringandAutumnPeriod,andithasbeenfightingforhegemonywithJinforahundredyears.Althoughitsufferedalarge-scaleinvasionbyWuattheendoftheSpringandAutumnPeriod,itsnationalpowerwasgreatlydamaged,butwiththedecadesofcultivationbytheChuZhaoandChuHuikings,andthecontinuousexpansionofthenorthandsouth.,Graduallytherearesignsofrevival.AtthebeginningoftheWarringStatesPeriod,theKingofMourningChuappointedWuQiasLingYinandimplementedreforms.ChuwasdefeatedintheNorthbytheThreeJins,buttheQininthewest,Changshainthesouth,andCangwu,theprincesoftheworldfearedthepowerofChu.

In381yearsago,afterthedeathofKingChuMourning,thenoblesrebelledandshotWuQiandshottheking’scorpse.ThenewlyascendedKingChuSuwipedouthisrebelliousaristocracy,butatthesametimeitcausedgreatchaosinthestateofChu.Inordertostabilizethegovernment,KingChuSureachedanagreementwiththeremainingnoblestoabolishpartofWuQi'sreformsinordertostabilizethecountry.Althoughthereformsweregreatlyreduced,theydidnotaffectthepowerofChuMourningKingChufortheKingdomofChu.Afterthat,KingChuXuanandKingChuWeiascendedthethrone,creatinganunprecedentedprosperoussituationintheWarringStatesperiodoftheChuKingdom,thatis,theprestigeofChuinthehistoryofChu.Intheflourishingage,duringthisperiod,KingChuXuansupportedQinXiangong,QinXiaogong,andQinandChuwereintermarried,andtheywereagainstWei.KingChuXuansenttroopstorescueZhaoagain,separatedfromthethreeJins,weakenedthestrongWei.ThekingofQiWeiandXuzhoudidnotnotifyChuandcausedChutobefurious.KingChuWeidefeatedtheQiarmyinXuzhouandtaughtKingQialesson.Duringthisperiod,thestateofChureachedthestrongeststate,andtheoveralldevelopmentwasstillupward.,AndmakethisflourishingagecontinuetotheearlystageofKingChuhuai.

DuringtheperiodofKingChuhuai,QinandQibothprosperedbackandforth.Chuwasanimportantweighttothetendencyofbothsides,andthetwocountriesbegantowinthesupportofChu.ButsincetheQiStatebroketheYanState,ChuStateandQiStatealliedandreconciled.TheQi-ChualliancemadeQin’splantoattackQiStatetonoavail.IfQinStatewantedtoattackandweakenQiState,itwasnecessarytodismantletheQi-ChuAlliance.Butatthistime,themonarchoftheChuKingdomwasthekingofChuHuai,wholovestobecheap.

InordertodestroythealliancebetweenChuandQi,ZhangYisentanenvoytoChuinthesecondyearofKingZhou(313before),sothatChuandQibrokeoffdiplomaticrelations.TheQinStatesentZhangYiintoChutopreach"LianHeng"totheKingofChuHuai,persuadingChutofollowtheQinDynasty,andverballymadeawishatthecostofreturning600lifromthemerchantsofChuState(inthesouthwestofXichuanCounty,HenanProvince).ChuHuaiWangbelievedthatitwastrue,sohebrokeoffdiplomaticrelationswithQi.WhenChuStatesentpeopletoaskQinStateforland,QinXiangZhangYislylysaid:"IagreedwiththeChuKingtobeLiuli,butIdidn'thearthatitwas600li."ChuHuaiwasveryannoyedandsenttroopstoattackQin.TheQinarmydefeatedtheChuarmyinDanyang,theChuarmywaskilled80,000people,theChugeneralQuyuwascaptured,andQinattackedChu'sHanzhongareafor600miles.ZhangYipersuadedHan,Zhao,YanandQinLianheng.InthefourteenthyearofKingZhouZhe(301),Qi,Han,andWeijointlyattackedChu,killedChugeneralTangMei,andswallowedChuFangchengarea.Alsointhisyear,KingSongKangattackedChuStateinthesouthandcapturedHuaibei.Inthe16thyearofKingZhouZhe(299before),KingChuHuaiignoredQuYuan'sadviceandwasdeceivedtoQin,wasdetained,andfinallydiedinQin.

AfterthekingofChuQingxiangcametothethrone,theChuStatebecamemoreandmoreweak.Althoughitwonaseriesofvictoriesintheanti-QinaspectoftheoldBaState,itevenarousedQin’srevengeandattack.Later,afterKingChuKaolieascendedthethrone,heusedChunShenJunashisprimeministertosaveZhaoKingdomfromthenorth,andtogetherwiththeprincestofightagainstQinanddefeatLuKingdom.ChuStategainedthepowerofrejuvenation,butitwasdifficulttomakeupforChuHuaiWangandChuQingxiang.Thegreattraumaleftbytheking.AfterthedeathofKingChuKaorie,ChuStatecontinuedtopourinitsinternalcourt,andChuStategraduallyweakened.

TheQin-ZhaoControversy

IntheeighthyearofKingZhouZong(previously307),KingZhaoWulingpracticedHufucavalry,changingthetraditionalchariotstocavalry,andchariotwarfaretosportswarfare.ThemilitarystrengthoftheStateofZhaohasbeengreatlyenhanced,whichhasbecomeanewobstacletothedevelopmentoftheStateofQintotheeast.InordertoattackZhao,KingQinZhaosentRanghouWeirantoQi,andKingQiminandKingQinZhaoproclaimedtheemperoratthesametime,andunitedthefivenationstoattackZhao.

ThelobbyistSuQinsawthroughQin’sconspiracyandpersuadedKingQiMintoabandonhistitleofemperor,launchajointwar,andjoinforcesfromthefivenationsincludingYan,Han,Wei,andZhao,inthe28thyearofKingZhou(287)beforejointlyattackingQin,QinwasforcedtocedeterritorytoWeiandZhaoYiforpeace.Afterthat,ZhaoShe,LianPo,andZhaoXianglinXiangrurepeatedlysmashedthemilitaryoffensiveanddiplomaticpressureoftheQinpeople,anddefendedZhao'sdignityandland.

TheFiveKingdomsConqueredQi

In286BC,theQiKingdomdestroyedtheSongKingdom,whichwasverypowerfulforawhile,causingunrestamongthecountries.YanGuojoinedforceswithQin,Han,Zhao,WeiandothercountriestoconquertheQianddefeatedtheQiarmyinJixi(nowsouthofLiaocheng,Shandong)in284BC.SinceKingYanzhaosucceededtothethrone,hehasworkedhardtobestrong,humbleandvirtuous,withshameandrevenge.ZhouRenSuQinandWeiRenLeYiwerereused.LeYihelpedKingYanZhaotocarryoutpoliticalreforms,sothatthecountryofYanwasquicklyrestoredanddeveloped.SuQinservedasaspytotheStateofQi,persuadingthekingofQiMintodefeatSongandattackChu,inordertoweakenQi'spower.ThetwoalsoagreedwithZhao,Wei,ChuandothercountriestojoinforceswithQi.Inthethirty-firstyearofKingZhouZhe(284before),thearmyofYan,Zhao,Qin,Wei,andChuledbytheYangeneralLeYiledajointattackonQi.QiJiangTianDantookadvantageoftheinternalcontradictionsintheYanstatetoexpeltheYanarmyandregainthelostground.However,QihaslosttheabilitytocompetewithQin.

ShangyangReform

QinZixiao,ShangyangReform,QinHuiwenKing,WuKing,ZhaoxiangKing,establishedarelativelysolidcentralizedruleinmorethan100years,Paysattentiontowaterconservancyandagriculturalproduction,rewardsmilitarymerits,hasexcellentmilitaryequipment,andmakesfulluseofKeqingtoplanbattlesforQin.Inthevassalstate,theVietnamWarbecamestrongerandstronger,andfinallydefeatedthepowerfulenemiesoftheEastandbecametheworld'sfirstpower.

Qinmergedfortwoweeks

DuringtheWarringStatesperiod,theZhouroyalfamilyevenlostitsnominalco-masterstatus,butitstillbarelymaintainedinLuoyang.WhenLuoyiwasbuiltintheearlyyearsoftheWesternZhouDynasty,twocitieswerebuilt.FangShilionthewestiscalledWangcheng,andthesmalleroneontheeastiscalledChengzhou.DuringtheWarringStatesPeriod,duetopowerstrugglesandenfeoffmentwithintheroyalchamber,theWesternZhougongwholivedintheroyalcityandtheEasternZhougongwithGongyi(nowGongxian,Henan)asthecapitalappearedsuccessively.ThetrueemperorZhouXiankinglivedundertheruleoftheEasternZhougong.IntheeighthyearoftheKingofZhou(307yearsago),becausetheKingofQinrefusedtoaskQinWutotrytoliftZhouDing,theQinarmydrovetheKingtoleavethepalaceoftheZhouDynasty,andtheKingofZmovedtoliveintheroyalcityoftheWesternZhouDynasty.Inthefifty-ninthyearofKingZhouZhe(256before),theQinarmycapturedYangcheng(nowsoutheastofDengfeng,HenanProvince)andNegong(nowsouthwestofDengfeng)inSouthKorea,andbeheadedfortythousand.ThekingoftheWesternZhouDynastyunitedthearmyoftheprincestoattackQininYique(nowsouthofLuoyang,Henan)toblockthepassagebetweenQinandYangcheng.KingQinZhaosenttroopstoattacktheWesternZhouDynasty.TheKingofWesternZhouDynastyhadtodedicateallhis36townstoQin,andtheKingdomofWesternZhouDynastywasdestroyed.Inthesameyear,KingZhouZhedied,andtheZhouDynastyasthekingdomoftheemperorceasedtoexist.InthefirstyearofKingQinZhuangxiang(249before),QinXiangbangLuBuweiledhistroopstodestroytheEasternZhouDynasty.

Inthethirty-seventhyearofKingZhouZhe(278before),QinGeneralBaiqiattackedYingcheng,thecapitalofChu,andopenedthepreludetothewarofunificationoftheQinKingdom.ChuStateavoidedthepoweroftheQinarmyandmoveditscapitaltoChen.ThepoetQuYuanfeltthecountry'sfallandcommittedsuicideintheMiluoRiver.Intheforty-fourthyearofKingZhouZhe(271before),KeqingFanjuofferedtoKingQinZhaothestrategyof"distanttiesandcloseattacks",whichwastoformallianceswithdistantcountries,concentrateondefeatingneighboringcountries,andthengraduallyannexothercountries.

BloodyChangping

QinZhaowang’sstrategyofNaFanju,senttroopstoattackKoreainthe50thyearofKingZhou(265before),andclosedtheconnectionbetweenShangdangCountyandXinzheng,thecapitalcityofHan.AlthoughitforcedSouthKoreatodedicatetheShangdangtoQin.However,ShangdangCountyturnedtorelyontheStateofZhao.KingQinwasfurious,QinandZhaowenttowar,andtheZhaofactionveteranLianPoledhisarmytogarrisoninChangping.Inthefifty-fourthyearofKingZhouZhe(260before),theQinfactiongeneralWangTuseizedShangdangandfoughtwithLianPojuninChangping,butZhaoJunwasdefeatedseveraltimes.LianPostrengthenedthebarriersandcouldnotgetout.Thetwosideswereinastalemateforthreeyears.Undertheprolongedwarofattrition,thenationalstrengthofthetwocountrieswaslosttoomuch.Qinwantedanearlydecisivebattle.KingZhaowasalsoquitedissatisfiedwithLianpo’spassiveavoidanceofwar.IncludingreplaceLianPoasthecommander-in-chiefofChangpingZhaoJun.Atthesametime,QinStatesecretlytradedforGeneralBaiQi.AftertheQinarmyattackedthefortressoftheZhaoarmycamp,ZhaoKuopretendedtobedefeatedandretreated.ZhaoKuoledthemainforcetopursueit.ZhaoJunwasbesiegedwithoutfoodforforty-sixdays.ZhaoKuoventuredoutofthesiege,diedonthespot,andthewholearmywasdefeated.BaiQiburiedallZhaoJun'ssoldiersalive,andZhaoJunlostatotalofmorethan400,000yuan.TheBattleofChangpingwasthedecisivebattlebetweenQinandhislaststrongplayerintheCentralPlains,anditwasalsothemosttragicwaroftheWarringStatesPeriod.Sofar,thesixeasterncountriesarenolongeropponentsofQin.

AftertheBattleofChangping,theQinarmytookadvantageofthemomentumtosurroundHandan,thecapitalofZhao.ThemassacreoftheQinarmyarousedtheindignationofthepeopleofZhaoandthefearofothercountries.Inthefaceofcriticalsurvival,thearmyofChuChunShenjunandWeiXinlingledthearmytoattackwiththeZhaoarmyinsideandoutside,andtheQinarmywasdefeated.QinwasinChangping.Thewarsufferedseriouslossesandfeltthatthestrengthwasinsufficient,sohewithdrewhistroops.

QinTunSixKingdoms

QinXiaowenKingLidiedoneyear(thefirst250),QinZhuangxiangsucceededtothethrone,LuBuwei,whowasabusinessman,becameprimeminister,andledhistroopstodestroytheEasternZhouDynastyinthesecondyear.Kingdom,takingHanZhichengGaoandXingyang,builtSanchuanCounty.Thefollowingyear,theQinarmyattackedZhao,defeatedHan,andestablishedTaiyuanCountyinShangdang.KingZhuangxiangcollapsedinthethirdyear(247before),andthe13-year-oldQinKingZhaoZheng(thesurnameswerenotunifiedinthepre-Qinperiod,menwerecalledclanandwomenwerecalledsurnames,soQinShihuangwascalledZhaoZheng.)Ascendedtothethrone,hebecamethelaterQinShihuang.InthefifthyearofEmperorQin'sadministration(242before),theQinarmyattackedWeiandseized20citiesincludingJujube,andsetuptheEastJun.In241,thefivekingdomsofZhao,Chu,Wei,Han,andYanpushedthekingofChuKaolieasthelongestleader,PangNuanwastheheadofthecoalitionforcesandattackedQintogether.WhenthecoalitionforcesattackedHanguPass,theQinarmyattackedandtheprincescoalitionforcesweredefeated.ThecoalitionforcesturnedtoattackQin'sally,Qi,andcapturedRao'an(nowsouthwestofYanshanCounty,HebeiProvince).InthesixthyearofEmperorQin'sadministration(241before),thefourthandlastmilitaryoffensiveagainstQinbyChu,Zhao,Wei,andHanweresmashed,andWeiXinling,themostfierceanti-Qinmonarch,waseliminatedbycounter-intermination.Sofar,infrontofthevastterritoryofQin,themonarchsofthesixeasternkingdomsarelikethechiefsofcountiesandcountiesinQin.

Inthe9thyearofEmperorQin'sadministration(238before),duringtherebellionofPingLao,QinWangYingzhengpersonallytookcontroloftheregime,andthendispatchedalargearmytosweeptheoldforcesofthesixcountrieswithaforceofdestructionanddestruction,anditisknownthattheQindestroyedthesixcountriesinhistory..

QindestroyedHaninthefirst230years;

Inthefirst228years,theQincapturedHandan,thecapitalofZhao’scapital;

Inthefirst225years,theQindestroyedtheWei;

QindefeatedChuin223BC;

QinMieyanandZhaoin222BC;

In221BC,QinextinguishedQi,thekingofQinbecameemperorandbecamethefirstemperor.

ChronologyofMajorEvents

453BC:Han,Zhao,andWeiweredividedintoJinDynasty,symbolizingthebeginningoftheWarringStatesPeriod.

390BC:WuQireforms-ChuState.

389BC:Tian'sgenerationofQi.

356BC:ShangYangReform-QinState.

353BC:TheWeiarmywasdefeatedinthebattleofGuilingoftheQiWeiDynasty(nowChangyuan,Henan).

341BC:InthebattleoftheMaLingoftheQiWeiDynasty(nowsouthwestofFanxianCounty,Shandong),theWeiarmywasdefeatedagain,andZhaobuilttheGreatWall.

334BC:KingofXuzhou.

312BC:ZhangYibroketheQi-Chucovenant.

307BC:ZhaoWulingandKingHufurodeandshoot.

287BC:SuQincombinedZhao,Qi,Chu,WeiandHantoattackQin.

In286BC,Qi,ChuandWeijoinedforcestodestroytheSongState.

278BC:QinbrokethecapitalcityofChuState,andChuStatemoveditscapital.

260BC:QinandZhaoweredefeatedinthebattleofChangping.

258BC:QindestroyedHandan.

256BC:QindestroyedtheWesternZhouDynasty.

251BC:ConstructionoftheDujiangyanWaterConservancyProject.

249BC:QindestroyedtheEasternZhouDynasty.

230BC:QindestroyedHan.

227BC:JingKeassassinatedQinbutfailedandwaskilled.

225BC:QindestroyedWei.

223BC:QindestroyedChu.

222BC:QindestroyedZhao.

222BC:QinMieyan.

221BC:QindestroyedQi.Sincethen,allsixcountrieshavebeendestroyed,andQinunifiedChina.(SeetheChronologyofWarringStatesEventsfordetails)

Politics

WarringStatesSituationMap(4photos)

Officialsystem

• Centralstructure

CountriesintheWarringStatesperiodabsorbedthemonarchyintheSpringandAutumnPeriod.Thehistoricallessonoftheestablishmentofanewbureaucraticsystemtorectifythefailureofthepatriarchalaristocracytocontrolthecountry'spowerinthepast.

DuringtheWarringStatesPeriod,thehighestofficialinthecentralgovernmentwastheXiangbang.Xiangbangistheleaderofahundredofficials,governsallthingsinthecourt,andhastherighttorewardandpunishofficials.Allcountrieshaveadoptedthisofficialname,butthenamesareslightlydifferent.SomecountrieshaveborrowedoldnamessuchasDazai,Tsukazai,andLingyin.Somecountriesarecalledprimeministers,andQinsometimesdoesnotsetprimeministersontheleftandright.

Comparedwithotherstates,theofficialswhoareinchargeofvariousspecificpositionsarelowerthantheofficials,includingSitu,SimaandSikonginchargeofcivilaffairs,militaryandengineeringaffairs(seeSanyoushi),andSikouwhomanagespenaltiesandresigns.Manager.TherearealsoofficialssuchasSitian,Gongshi,andYushiwhospecializeinagriculture,handicrafts,andforestresources.

• Localinstitutions

Thelocalitiesaregenerallydividedintoseveralcountiestoreplacethenobles’Fengyi,aftertheQinShangyangReform,atotalof41countieswereestablishedthroughoutthecountry,andthe"WarringStatesPolicy"statedthattherewerehundredsofcountiesinWei.Thecountyisalsocalledthecapital.Therearetownshipsandliunderthecounty.Insomecountries,therearealsostatesbetweentownshipsandli.Lixiaisdividedintoseveralgroupsandfivegroups.Therearefivegroupsandtengroups.Thecountymagistrateistheorder,QinorSanjin,andthecountymagistrateisalsoknownasthemagistrate.Undertheorder,therewereCheng,Wei,Yushi,andXianSikong,XianSimaandotherofficials.Inthetownship,therearethreeoldmen,Lidian,andarmychiefs.Thecountyisundertheruleofthemonarch,andthemonarch’sdecreecanbecarriedouttothetownshipandlithroughthelocalofficials.Thecentralizationsystemismuchstrongerthaninthepast.

Countriesareoftengovernedbycountiesinborderareasornewly-occupiedplaces.Forexample,WeisetupShangjuninHexi,andafterQindestroyedShu,Shujunwasestablished.AfterZhaodefeatedLinhuandLoufan,YunzhongandYanmenwereestablished.DuringtheWarringStatesPeriod,thecountieswererelativelylarge.TheShangdangCountyofHanhad17counties,andtheDaiandShanggucountiesofZhao,Yaneachhad36counties.Theofficialsinchargeofthecountyaretheguards,andtherearealsothosecalledtheprefects.Thepurposeofsettingupacountyistostrengthenthelocalmilitarydefensecapabilities.Therefore,inadditiontogoverningthepeople,thecountyguardsalsocontrolthepowerofthearmy,andcanleadtheirtroopstodefendthemselvesorattacktheenemy.

Shouanddecreesfromthestatetothelocalityareappointedandremovedbythemonarch.Whenappointingofficials,anofficialsealmustbeawarded.Onlywiththeofficialsealcantheofficialsexercisetheirpower.Whendismissingtheofficialseal,themonarchalsowantedtotakebacktheofficialseal,whichwascalled"recoveringtheseal"or"seizingtheseal"atthattime.Themonarchusestheso-called"scheming"toassesstheperformanceoftheofficials.Ifanofficialisincompetentoratfault,themonarchmayreceivehissealandremovehisofficial."Xunzi"said:"Xiangbanghonorshissuccessattheendoftheyeartoservetheemperor,andwhenitiswrong,itwillbeabolished."Xiangbangistheleaderofthehundredofficials,andiftheemperorisdissatisfiedwithhim,hecanbedismissedatanytime.Itcanbeseenthattheassessmentofofficialsatthattimewasrelativelystrict.Becauseofthis,mostgovernmentsinvariouscountriescanmaintainhighadministrativeefficiency.

• Nepotism

IntheSpringandAutumnPeriod,nepotismwaspracticed,andtheofficialsweremainlyheldbythesonsandgrandsons.AppointmentofmeritocracyduringtheWarringStatesperiodwasmorepopular.AlthoughthephenomenonofappointingclansincountrieslikeQiandChuhasnotceased,mostcountriesmainlyrecruitusefultalentsfromthecommonpeople,andeventhosewhocamefromthepoor,suchasShenBuhuandFanJu,canbespeciallyappointed.QinDuousedforeigngueststorecruittheworld'stalents.QinNengisthestrongestintheworld,whichhasnothingtodowiththis.Mostofficialsandofficialsarerecommendedandrecommendedbyministersorcelebrities.Iftherecommenderactsfavoritism,hewillbepunished.Forexample,Qinstatesthat"everyonewhoappointsapersonbutdoesnotdowellshallbeguiltyofhiscrimes."

Officialsgenerallyreceivepaymentinkind.Seniorofficialscaneatforathousandminutes,oreventhreethousandortenthousandminutes.Thelowersalaryis1,000stones,followedby800stones,700stones,600stones,500stones,400stones,300stones,200stones,100stones,and50stones.Theloweroneisfightingforfood.AccordingtotheQinsystem,thosewithmorethan600shibelongtotherankofhigh-rankingofficials.Officialshavespecialmerits,andthecountryoftenrewardsfields.Forexample,"BookofLordShang"oncesaid:"Getthefirstone,rewardthefirstlevel,andenjoythefield."

Therearestillnobletitles,butitisquitedifferentfromtheSpringandAutumnSystem.Iftheybelongtotheclanoraministerwhohasmademeritoriousservice,theycangetthetitleofprinceorprince,haveafeudalorafief,mainlyfood,rentandtax,andonlyhaveacertainrighttogovernthepeople.Thesefeudalmonarchsaremostlylifelongorhandeddownforseveralgenerations,anditisdifficulttoinheritthemforalongtime.Theloweronesareofficialsordoctors,whoaregenerallyawardedtoheroesorfamousmen.Qin'snobilitysystemhasmanyranks,rangingfromHoutodoctorandscholar.Amongthem,thewinnersareciviliansorsoldiers.

Law

AtthebeginningoftheWarringStatesperiod,variouscountries'reformsfurthersystematizedthelaw.The"LawClassics"compiledbyWeiGuoli,includingthelawofthieves,lawofthieves,lawofprisoners,lawofarrest,miscellaneouslaw,andtoollaw.Theruleoflawistosteal,andtheruleoflawistokill.Theprisonlawandthearrestlawareproceduresforthedetectionandarrestofthieves.Miscellaneouslawsarepenalprovisionsforcrimesotherthanthievesandthieves.Specificlawsareprovisionsthatmitigateoraggravatecrimesbasedoncircumstances.Qinoriginallyhadthepunishmentofclanpunishment.ShangYangreformedthelaw,establishedthelawofcontinuoussitting,andenactedstrictlaws,increasingcorporalpunishment,large-scalepunishment,andpunishmentofchiseling,pullingribs,andcooking.Othercountriesarealsoracingtoenactharshtorturelaws.Forexample,therearepunishmentssuchascooking,killing,brewing,andgoldenswordsintheQi,andthepunishmentsofkilling,dismembering,cooking,piercingears,whip,slap,mowing,palace,shackles,gravel,extermination,Yizong,andthreetribes.Therearepunishmentssuchastruncation,abdomen,imprisonment,andotherpunishments.

DuringtheWarringStatesperiod,allcountriesusedseverepunishmentstogovernthecountry.Tothisend,abatchofnewstatutorycodeshavebeenformulated.WeiYouLiLi's"FaJing"isthemostfamous.ZhaoYou"TheLawoftheState",YanYou"TheLaw".Butthesecodesarelonggone.ThelawofQinwascompiledonthebasisofthe"BookofLaws",anditnolongerexists.However,mostoftheYunmengQinLawandotherrelatedmaterialsunearthedin1972shouldbethelegalprovisionsoftheQinStateduringtheWarringStatesPeriod,andarevaluablematerialsforunderstandingthelegalstatusofQinorothercountries.

QinLawputstheprotectionofthesacredandinviolablenatureofprivatepropertyinthefirstplace.Forexample,thepunishmentfortheoffenderisextremelyharsh.Thosewhoparticipateinthesharingorconcealmentofstolengoodswillbepunishedinthesamewayasthethief.Thethiefwhostolentheproceeds,thevalueofwhichexceedssixhundredandsixtydollars,willbepunishedwithaseveresentencesecondtothedeathpenalty.Suchastheftofsomeoneelse’smulberryleaves,whichareworthlessthanadollar,theyhavetoperformhardlaborfor30days.

Secondly,thelawattachesgreatimportancetotheillegalactsofofficials.ThereareavarietyofofficialregulationsintheQinlaw,suchas"LawofSettingOfficials","LawofImitation","LawofMilitaryJueGoldenclothlaw.Officialswhoneglecttheirdutiesinlawenforcementareregardedas"incompetent",andthelightsentenceforafelonyoramisdemeanoris"notstraight".Both"incompetent"and"notstraight"constitutecrimes.Officialswhoare"uncorrupt"are"evilofficials",andtheyarealsonottoleratedbythelaw.

ThepunishmentduringtheWarringStatesperiodwascruel.Penaltiesincludedeathpenalty,corporalpunishment,imprisonment,etc.Corporalpunishmentisdividedinto髡,tattoo,刖,劓andsoon.Imprisonmentisalong-termhardlaborforsinners.SanjincallsthistypeofcriminalsXumi,andQincallstheprisonersChengdanorGuixian,aminister.InQin'simprisonment,Chengdanwastheheaviest.Theprisonerworeochrerobesonhishair,irontongsonhisneck,andironhornsonhisfeet.Atthesametime,theymustbepunishedwithcorporalpunishmentssuchastattooingand劓.ChengDanhasservedlong-termhardlaborunderclosesupervision,andhasactuallybecomeaslavetocriminals.CorporalpunishmenthasbecomearemnantofthepreviouseraduringtheWarringStatesperiod,andimprisonmenthasbecomeanimportantmeansofpunishment.Thelighterpenaltiesincluderelocation,flogging,fines,andpenalties.Relocationistomoveprisonerstoborderareastoserveorguard.Thefamilymembersoftheprisoneralsohavetobearlegalresponsibility,andthethreetribalpunishmentsinthe"LawJing",thatis,therelativesoftheprisoner'sfather,mother,andwifearealsoimplicated.Theso-called"receiving"inQin'slawalsoreferstotheconvictedwivesandchildren.

Princes

IntheSpringandAutumnPeriod,thereweremorethan100countries.Aftercontinuousmergers,therewereaboutadozencountriesintheearlyyearsoftheWarringStatesPeriod.ThebigcountriesareQin,Wei,Han,Yan,Zhao,Qi,andChu,namelythe"SevenHeroesoftheWarringStatesPeriod".Inaddition,Vietnamisarelativelypowerfulcountry.XiaoguohasSong,Lu,Wei,Zhongshan,Teng,Zou,etc.Inaddition,therearemanyethnicminoritiesscatteredaround.ThereareLinhu,Loufan,Donghu,andYiquinthenorthandnorthwest,andBa,Shu,andMinyueinthesouth.UntilthereunificationoftheQinDynasty,throughtheannexationwarsofthenationsandspontaneouseconomicandculturalexchangesandmigrations,mostoftheseethnicminoritiesmergedwiththeCentralPlains,somemaintainedtheiroriginalnationalfeatures,andsome,suchastheXiongnu,wereinoppositiontotheCentralPlains.

ChartofchangesintheformsoftheWarringStates(6photos)

IntheearlydaysoftheWarringStatesPeriod,the"SevenHeroes"wereformed,andallcountriesspenttheirenergyoninternalorganization.Variouscountriesrecruittalentsandstrivetogovern.PeoplelikeLiLi,WuQi,andShangYang'sreformsandreformstookplaceduringthisperiod.

ThemiddleoftheWarringStatesperiodwasthetimeoftheGreatWar.Itisreally:"thecountryhasnopeaceday,andtheyearhasnopeaceday","thecountryhasnofixeddiplomaticrelations,andthesoilhasnofixedmaster".Inordertomaintaintheirownsurvivalandexpandthepowerofeachcountry,themonarchshavesuccessivelybecomekingsanddominateoneside.Ontheonehand,itstrengthenscentralization,reformstobestrong,andstrengthensarmaments;ontheotherhand,itfrequentlystrivesforthe"collaboration"and"continuity"ofothercountriesindiplomacy.

InthelateWarringStatesperiod,KingQinZhaoxiangusedFanJuashisprimeministerandadoptedthestrategyof"distantdiplomacyandcloseattack",whichunderminedthe"integration"ofvariouscountries,strengthenedQin’snationalpowerandmilitary,andbecamethenumberoneleaderintheWarringStatesperiod.Astrongcountryweakensthepowerofallcountries

Reforms

• LiLi

WeiWenhou(reignedfrom445BCto396BC)appointedLiLitocarryoutreforms,didhisbesttoteach,establishedmilitarypawns,reusedWuQi,XimenBaoandotherstogovernlocalities,developtheeconomy,andbecamethefirstpowerintheearlyWarringStatesperiod.

Contentsofthereform:

⒈AbolishtheShiqingShilusystemandestablishacounty-levelbureaucraticsystem.Inaccordancewiththeprincipleof"foodforworkandrewardformerit",officialswereselectedaccordingtotheirmeritsandabilities,weakenedtheprivilegesofthenobility,andestablishedthebureaucraticsystemofcountiesandcounties.

⒉Promotetheteachingofbesteffort.

⒊Practicetheflatmethod.

⒋Asthe"LawSutra".

• WuQi

Background:ThestateofChudeclined,andthekingofChumournedthekingwithWuQi'sreform.WuQi(approximately440BC-approximately381BC),anativeofWeiguo,whofailedtoseekdevelopmentinWeiguo,wenttoLuKingdom,studiedunderZengcan'sschool,tookQitianjuerashiswife,anddidnotreturnhomeforthefuneral.ZengziinterruptedTheteacher-studentrelationship.Lumuusedhimasageneral,andhekilledhiswifeandbeggedforthegeneral.AfterarrivinginWei,heparticipatedinLiLi'sreform.In383BC,atthetimeofWeiWuhou,WuQiwassqueezedfromWeiZhichubytheuncleWeiXianggong.Inthe20thyearofZhouAn'sking(382before),theChuMourningKingappointedWuQitocarryoutreforms,cutredundantofficials,abolishedthearistocraticShiQingShilu,madealegaltrialorder,prohibitedprivateentrustment,andbecamemoreandmoreprosperous.ButtheoldforcesofChuweretoostrong.AssoonasChuMourningKingdied,WuQiwasshottodeathbyrandomarrows.

Thecontentofthereformis:

Enactlawsandpublishthemtothepublicsothattheofficialsandthepublicwillunderstand.

Thenobleswhohavebeenentrustedwiththemonarchhavebeenpasseddownforthreegenerationstocanceltheirjubilee;stopregularsupplytoalienatednobles,andenrichdomesticnoblestoremoteplaceswithsparselypopulatedareas.

Weedoutandretrenchedinsignificantofficials,cutofficialsalaries,andusedthesavedwealthtostrengthenthearmy.

TocorrectthebadethosofChu'sofficialdomthatharmedthepublicandtheprivateandslanderedloyalty,sothattheofficialsofChuweredevotedtoservingthecountryregardlessofpersonalhonoranddisgrace.

Privaterequestsareforbidden,andthecustomsoftheChustateareunified.

The"twoeditionsofthewall"wereabolished,andthefoureditionsofthecitybuildinglawwerechangedtobuildthecapitalofChuKingdom(nownorthwestofJingzhouCity,HubeiProvince).

• ZouJi'sreforms

WangWeiHuimovedthecapitaltoDaliangtoattractscholarsanddevelopWaterconservancy,theuseofforeigntroops,attemptedtoannexPuyangasthecapitaltodefendthecountry,causingdissatisfactionwithsurroundingcountries.Atthistime,KingQiWeiappointedZouJiandotherstocarryoutreforms,vigorouslyrectifypolitics,encouragehissubjectstoremonstrance,enactlaws,provokeexile,anddeveloprapidlyeconomically,becomingapowersecondonlytoWei.Inthe16thyearofKingZhouXian(353BC)andthebattleofMaLinginthe28thyearofKingZhouXian(341BC),QiStateusedTianJiasthegeneralandSunBinasthemilitarydivision.AfterWeiJun,QihasbecomethestrongestcountryintheCentralPlains.Inordertomeetthedemandfortalents,KingQiXuanexpandedtheJixiaAcademyinLinzi,Qidu.ScholarswhocametoJixiaweregivengeneroussalaryandcomfortablelivingtreatmentstoscholar-bureaucrats,allowingthemtoconcentrateonacademics,cultivatedisciples,andpromoteacademics.Progressandprosperity.

• ShangYang

ThethirteenthyearofKingZhouXian(356before)andthenineteenthyear(First350),QinXiaogongappointedShangYangtomakethemostthoroughreforms.TheShangYangreformsencouragedpopulationgrowth,emphasizedagricultureandsuppressedbusiness,abolishedtheShiqingShilusystem,rewardedmilitarymerit,establishedhukou,andimplementedthemethodofcontinuoussitting,makingQinthemostpowerfulcountryafterthemid-WarringStatesperiod.AlthoughShangYangfailedtolauncharebellionandwaskilled,andwascrackedbyacarafterhisdeath,thenewlawhasnotbeenabolished.

Maincontent:

⒈Abandontheminefieldsandopenuptheterracestosealtheborders.

Qianmoisthefieldboundaryofarableland.Itturnsoutthateveryonehasashareofland,andthereisnofixedfieldboundary.Becausefallowlandiseveryone’spublicland,arablelandisoftenre-divided.TheShangyangReformsencouragedthepeopletoexpandtheareaof​​arablelandtodevelopproduction.Theopeningofpaddyfieldsmeantthatthecultivatedlandwasexpandedforthepeople.Theestablishmentofpaddyfieldsasafixedfieldboundaryprovidedafavorableguaranteeforlandusers.Territoryistheborderoftheemperor,theprinces,thenobles'fiefsorthefield.Thebordersaregatheredasaseal,andtreesareplantedontheborderasasign,whichiscalledtheborder.KaifengTerritorywasthedemarcationestablishedfortheprivateestatesofthenoblesatthattime.Toopenuptheterritoriestosealtheterritoriesistodestroytheoldterritories,tore-plan,andnottomovewithoutpermission.Thismaintainedtheprivateownershipoffeudalland,whichwasconducivetothedevelopmentofthelocaleconomy.

⒉Rewardmilitarymeritsandprohibitprivatefights

Rewardmilitarymerits.Anyonewhohasmilitarymeritscanberewardedwithnobles,land,andofficials.KilledanenemyJiashi,andobtainedthefirst-levelbestowingclass,TianYiqing,ninemuofhouse,andoneman,whocanbeanofficialoffiftyshisalaries.Twenty-classmilitaryknightswereformulated:(1)Gongshi;(2)madeontop;(3)Zanxiang(alsoknownasMouren);(4)Nochange;(5)Doctor;(5)Officialdoctor;(5)Publicdoctor;(5)Publicpassenger;(5)Leftconcubinelong;⑾rightconcubinelong;⑿leftshift;⒀middleshift;⒁rightshift;Variousprivileges,commutations,costumes,andgravesaregrantedaccordingtotherankofnobility.Privatefightsarestrictlyforbidden,andoffendersshallbepunishedaccordingtotheirseverity.Inthisway,peoplewereencouragedtofightforthecountry,andalargenumberofself-cultivatingfarmersandlandlordswereproduced,formingasituationwhere"thepeoplearebraveinpublicwarsandafraidofprivatefights."

⒊Heavytheoriginalandsuppressthelast,rewardfarmingandweaving

Atthattime,agriculturewascalledthemainindustry,whichwasthefoundationofthecountry'swealthandstrength,whilecommerceandhandicraftswerecalled"thelastindustry."ShangYangexemptedthosewhoworkedhardtooperateagriculturefromdutyandlabor,andconfiscatedthemasservantsandservantswhowereengagedincommerceorwerelazysothattheycouldnotpaythetax.Thisisgoodforthedevelopmentofagriculturalproduction.Inordertoincreasetaxrevenueandencourageone-familyproduction,itisstipulatedthattwoadultmeninthefamilymustseparateaftertheygetmarriedandsetupaseparatehouse.Womenmustmarryuptoacertainage,otherwise,theywillpaymoretaxes.Objectively,itpromotedthedevelopmentofasmallpeasanteconomy,whichbecameanimportantfeatureofthefeudaleconomy.Eachhouseholdbecomesaproductionandbusinessunit,andthepropertyisdividedintodifferenthouseholds,sothattheclassisconstantlychanging.

⒋Implementthecountysystem

QinXiaogongusedtohavecounty-leveladministrativeagencies,butitwasnotcommon.Shangyangreformsgenerallyimplementedthecountysystem.Countyorderswereestablishedfor10,000householdsormore,andtheheadsof10,000householdsweresetup.Thesalaryrangedfrom30,000shito1,000shi..ThissetofinstitutionsisconducivetothecentralizationofpowerandhasbecometheprototypeofChina'scounty-levelstateapparatus.

⒌Promulgatelawstoimplementcontinuoussitting.

⒍Tuimuisaletter,affirmingthelaw.

⒎MovedthecapitaltoXianyang.

⒏Reformthetaxationsystem.

⒐RemoveRongdicustoms.

• ShinBuhu

WhenWeiHuiruledthehegemony,SouthKorea’snationalstrengthwasstillweak.TheministerShenBuhuipersuadedthemonarchHanZhaohoutoadheretotheWeistate,recognizethehegemonyoftheWeistate,andatthesametimerulethecountryinternallybylawandimplementfurtherreforms.

Inthefirst355years,HanZhaohouappointedShenasaministerandimplementedreformsinSouthKorea.

Inadditiontotalkingabouttheruleoflawlikeotherlegalists,ShenBuhuimainlyemphasizedthe"skills"oftheruleofthemonarch,thatis,themethodsofappointing,supervising,andassessingministers.Hebelievesthatwhenthemonarchappointsofficials,itisnecessarytoexaminewhethertheyareworthyofthename,whethertheyarecompetentintheirwork,whethertheyareconsistentwiththeirwordsanddeeds,andwhethertheyareloyaltothemonarch,andthenpromoteandremovethembasedonwhattheyknow.Theproposalof"skills"wasofgreatsignificancetotheestablishmentoftheappointmentandremovalexaminationsystemforofficialsatthattime.

Thefirststepistorectifythegovernmentofofficialsandstrengthenthecentralizationofthemonarchy,whichhasstabilizedthepoliticalsituationinSouthKoreaandgreatlyincreasedSouthKorea’spower.Atthesametime,large-scale"technical"governanceandrectificationoftheranksofofficialshaveeffectivelyimprovedtheadministrativeefficiencyofthestatepowerandbroughtSouthKoreatoavigoroussituation.Theyalsocarriedoutharshmilitarytraining,stronglyadvocatedthepeopletoopenupmorewastelandandavarietyoffood,andvalueandencouragethedevelopmentofhandicraftindustry,especiallyweaponsmanufacturing.

For15years,ShinBuh-HouSanghan,"reliedonpoliticsandreligioninside,andshouldbeprincesoutside",helpedHanZhaohoutoimplementtheruleoflawandtheruleoftactics,sothattheKoreanmonarchywasstrengthenedandthedomesticpoliticalsituationwasstabilized.Historically,itissaidthat"thesonofShenisthelastsonofthecountry,therulerofthecountryisstrong,andtherearenoinvadersinKorea."

• Hufuridingandshooting

TheKingZhaoWulingwasahard-workingmanoftheZhaoKingdomduringtheWarringStatesPeriodApromisingmonarch,inordertoresisttheaggressionoftheHupeopleinthenorth,heimplementedthemilitaryreformof"Hufuqiqishoot".ThecorecontentofthereformistowearHuren'scostumesandlearnhowtofightonhorsebackandarchery.Theclothesarepleatedonthetopandthebottomisfringe,thereisamartialartscrowndecoratedwithsablesandcicadas,abeltdecoratedwithgoldenhooks,andbootsonthefeetforridingandshooting.Tothisend,hetooktheleadinwearingHuuniforms,ridinghorses,practicingarchery,andpersonallytrainingsoldiers,sothatthemilitarystrengthoftheZhaocountrybecamestrongerandstronger,andhewasabletoretreatfromtheHupeopletothewestanddestroyZhongshantothenorth,becomingoneofthe"SevenHeroesoftheWarringStates".one.

Military

Duetofrequentwars,allcountrieshaveapowerfularmedforce.Soldierscomefromrecruitmentorconscription.Atthattime,the"trainingsoldiers"or"trainers"shouldberecruited,well-trained,andwell-equippedstandingtroops.Butintheeventofabigwar,menoftherightagearealsoenlistedformilitaryserviceatanytime.Forexample,inthebattlebetweenQinZhaoandChangping,KingQinZhaopersonallywenttoHanoiandorderedmenfrom7feetto63yearsoldtogototheShangdangparty.Inordertoinspiresoldierstofightbravely,variouscountriesadoptdifferentrewards.Forexample,Qi'smartialartist,whowinstheenemy'sheadcangetareward;Wei'smilitarypawns,theirfamilymemberscanbeexemptedfrommilitaryservice.Inadditiontorewards,Qinalsothreatenedwithseverepunishment,whichwasoneofthereasonswhytheQinarmywasverypowerful.

DuringtheWarringStatesperiod,theroyalpowerwasveryconcentrated,sothemonarchfirmlycontrolledthemilitarypowerinhisownhands.Forexample,thegeneralsofthearmywereappointedbythemonarch.IntheearlyyearsoftheWarringStatesperiod,thegeneralswereoftenappointedbytheXiangbang,andlaterbyotherhigh-rankingofficials.Thegeneralsetupanofficialverymuchandhewillstopafterthewarisover.Whenmobilizingthearmy,themonarchusedtigercharmsasatoken.Thetigersymbolismadeofcopperandisshapedlikeatiger.Therightsymbolisintheking'splace,andtheleftsymbolisinthehandofthegeneral.IfWangRuosentsomeonetomobilizethearmy,heneededtobringtherighttalisman.Afterpassingthetalisman,thegeneralscouldmoveatorders.Accordingtotheinscriptionofthe"XinQiFu"oftheQinState,iftherearemorethan50troopsinalocality,theremustbeaWangFu.Itcanbeseenthatthemonarch'scontroloverthearmyisquitestrict.

Economy

Agriculturaldevelopment

• Furtherpromotionofirontools

Alargenumberofirontoolswereunearthedfromvariousplaces,indicatingtheirwidespreadnature.Theimprovementofmethodshasprovidedmaterialpreconditionsforthedevelopmentofagriculturalproduction.Therevolutionarychangesinproductiontoolsaremainlytheemergenceandwidespreaduseofironware.IronwarewasalreadyavailableattheendoftheSpringandAutumnPeriod,butitwasnotpopular.AfterenteringtheWarringStatesperiod,bothagricultureandhandicraftswereinseparablefromirontools.TieGenghasbeenmentionedinthebook"Mencius"."GuanZi"believesthat:farmersmusthaveironLei,Lei,andCho,femaleworkersmusthaveneedlesandknives,andturnersmusthavecatties,saws,cones,andchisels.Otherwisetheycan'tdoit.Asfarasweknow,Henan,Shaanxi,Shanxi,Shandong,Hebei,Liaoning,Hunan,HubeiandotherprovinceshaveallunearthedWarringStatesirontools.Itcanbeseenthattheareawhereironwarewasusedwasextremelywide.Moreover,therearemanytypesofirontools.Forexample,thereareagriculturaltoolssuchashoe,scythe,sickle,andchub,aswellashandtoolssuchasaxe,casting,chisel,andknife.Therearedifferencesinsizeordifferentstylesinthesametool.IntheBronzeAge,coppertoolsoftencoexistedwithtoolsmadeofwood,stone,bone,andmussels.BythetimeoftheWarringStatesperiod,notonlywoodandstonetoolsgraduallydisappeared,butalsobronzetools.Sharpandsturdyirontoolsarewidelyusedinagricultureandhandicrafts,whichgreatlyimprovesworkefficiency.

• Thepromotionoflivestockfarming

Inadditiontocattlefarming,therearealsohorsefarming.Theregionismoreextensive.

• Thereisprogressinfarmingtechnology

Identificationofsoil,fertilizationtechnology,onethousandearlierthanEuropeformanyyears.

• Typesanddistributionoffoodcrops

Duetodifferentcountries'soilandclimate,theplantingisdifferentThetypesofcropsandfoodcropsarealsodifferent.

• Increaseingrainproduction

DuringtheWarringStatesperiod,ironfarmtoolswereexcludedfromwoodandstonefarmtoolsItiswidelyusedinproduction,facilitatingthefellingoftrees,constructionofwaterconservancy,reclamationofwastelandanddeepcultivation,andpromotedthedevelopmentofagriculturalproduction.Whiledeepplowingandweeding,farmerspayattentiontoidentifyingthenatureofthesoilandchoosedifferentcropsforplantingaccordingtolocalconditions.Improvedfertilizationtechnology,knowhowtodressseedswithfertilizerjuice,manure,greenmanureandplantasharecommonlyused.Begintopayattentiontotheselectionofseeds,preventpestsanddiseases,implementborderseedingmethods,sowingtheseedsataproperdensity,facilitateventilationanddrainage,andbegoodatrooting,weeding,thinningandcontrollingthefarmingseason.Thewidespreadpromotionoftwo-croppingayearhasgreatlyincreasedtheannualoutputperunitarea.WeiGuoLiLionceestimatedthegrainoutputatthattimethatonemuofland(aboutone-thirdofthecurrentacre)innormalyearscanproducemilletandastoneandahalf(about41kilogramstoday).Itcanreachsixstones,fourandahalfstones,andthreestones.Whensmall,mediumandlargeharvestsarepoor,youcanonlyhitonestone,sevenfights,andthreefights.Theaveragefarmerneedsarationofonestoneandahalfperpersonpermonth.Afamilyoffiveeatsninetystoneayear.Innormalyears,thegrainproducedbyafamilyofonehundredacresoflandisenoughforthewholefamilytoeatforoneandahalfyears.Atthattime,onestonewasequalto60kilogramstoday.ItcanbeseenthatChina'sagriculturehasmadeafundamentalbreakthroughandthefoundationhasbeenlaidatthattime.

Handicraftindustry

• Ironsmelting

IronsmeltingisakindofTheemergingmetalsmeltingandcastingindustry.ItstartedaroundtheendoftheSpringandAutumnPeriod,andmadegreatprogressintheWarringStatesPeriod.The"ShanHaiJing"mentionedthat"themountainofcopperis467,andthemountainofironis3,690".Whendescribingthevariousresourcesofacertainmountain,thereareoftenthewords"itsyangismorecopper,anditsyinismoreiron".Itreflectsthatpeoplehaveagoodunderstandingofironoreresources."GuanZi"alsosaid:"Thereisocheronthetop,andirononthebottom."Atthattime,peoplehadmasteredthemethodofidentifyingoreseedlingstofindore.

Sincethe1950s,alargenumberofWarringStatesirontoolshavebeenunearthedeverywhere.Amongthem,farmtoolsandhandtoolsarethemost,butalsoweaponsandotherartifacts.Itisalsofoundthatthereareironorclaytypesusedforcastingironware.Accordingtothetestresultsoftheunearthedironware,atthattime,asoftironwasproducedbythelumpsmeltingmethod,butitcouldalsobeprocessedandsmeltedintohardpigiron.Becausepigironisbrittle,peopleusedsofteningtechnologytomakeitintoductilecastiron.Thesmelteralsomasteredthetechniqueofcarburizingtheironobtainedbytheblocksmeltingmethodintosteel.DuringtheWarringStatesforhundredsofyears,itwaspossibletoenterthesmeltingmethodofsmeltingpigironandiron-smeltingsteelfromtheprimitivelumpsmeltingmethod.Therapidtechnologicalprogresswasrareinthehistoryofmetallurgyintheworld,indicatingthatChineseironsmeltingtechnologywasintheworldatthattime.Shanghasalreadyoccupiedaleadingposition.

• Coppersmeltingindustry

CoppersmeltingindustryisstillveryimportantinthehandicraftindustryoftheWarringStatesPeriodStatus.AcopperminesitefromtheSpringandAutumnPeriodtotheWarringStatesPeriodwasdiscoveredatTongluMountaininDaye,Hubei.Themineis50metersdeepandhascriss-crossingtunnels.Inordertopreventcollapse,woodensupportswereerectedinthetunnels.Minersusebronzeorirontoolstomineore,andusewoodenpotter'swheelsasatooltoextractore.Accordingtotoday'sestimates,theoreminedforseveralcenturiesatthattimecouldreachabout100,000tons.Judgingfromthesituationatthissite,copperminingwasalreadyonarelativelylargescaleandtheminingtechnologywasrelativelyadvanced.

Inadditiontocastingritualvesselsandmusicalinstruments,copperalsohastobecastintocoins,talisman,seals,measuringvessels,etc.Thesocietyhasagreatdemandforcopper,sothelevelofcopperwaremanufacturingisstillimproving.Accordingtothe"ZhouLi·KaoGongJi",therewereso-called"sixqis"suchas"ZhongDing,Axe,GeJi,BigBlade,CutArrow,andJianSui"atthattime."Qi"referstotheratioofcoppertotin,and"SixQi"referstodifferentproportionsofcopperandtinbasedonsixdifferenttypesofutensils.Inordertobetterdecoratethesurfaceofthecopperware,smallgroovesarecarvedonthesurfaceofthecopperware,andthengoldandsilverwiresareembeddedtoformbeautifulpatterns.Inscriptionsonartifactscanalsousethismethod.Thisistheso-calledwronggoldandsilver.Afterthisprocessing,thebronzeshavegreaterartisticcharm.

• Silkandlinenfabrics

Theproductionofsilkandlinenfabricsisalsoquitedeveloped.TheQiStateintheEastwasfamousatthattimeforitsmany"literaryandartisticcloths".Amongthelinenfabricsunearthedinsomeancienttombs,thereareveryfinelinen,with28warpthreadsand24weftthreadspersquarecentimeter.AlargenumberofsilkfabricswereunearthedfromthetombofChuinMashan,Jiangling,Hubei.Theyarewellpreserved,especiallyrare.Theyincludesilk,Luo,yarn,brocadeandotherdifferentvarieties,withsilkbeingthelargest.Silkhas50warpthreadsand30weftthreadspersquarecentimeter.Thefinestistheonehundredandfifty-eightwarpthreadsandseventylatitudethreads.Thesilkwasdyedinred,black,purple,yellow,brownandothercolors.Luoandyarnaresilkfabricswiththintexture.Themostpreciousbrocadeinthisbatchoffabricsisathicksilkfabricwovenwithajacquardmachine,withcolorfulanimalorfigurepatternsonit,indicatingthattherewerealreadycomplexweavingmachinesatthattime,andweaversmasteredthemoredifficultones.Textileskills.Therearemanyembroideryintheunearthedobjects.Therearetwomethodsofembroidery:flatembroideryandlockembroidery.EmbroideredonLuoorsilk,embroideredwithcolorfuldragon,phoenix,tigerandotherpatternsandpatterns.Fromtheaboverelics,itcanbeseenthattheproductionofsilkfabricsduringtheWarringStatesperiod,whetheritisweaving,dyeing,jacquard,orhandembroidery,reachedahighleveloftechnology.

• Managementmethod

ThehandicraftindustryoftheWarringStatesPeriod,partlyoperatedbythegovernment,andpartlyprivatelyownedbythegovernmentThehistoryofthehandicraftindustrycanbetracedbacktoShangandZhou.DuringtheWarringStatesperiod,itwasonlyafollow-uptotherest,buttherewerenewdevelopmentsinthecategory,scale,andskillsofoperations.Likethenewlyemergingironsmeltingindustry,itisalsoindispensableinthegovernmentindustry.Atthattime,thegovernmentnotonlyproducedsalt,iron,andcoins,whichwerecloselyrelatedtothenationaleconomyandpeople'slivelihood,butalsolacquerware,pottery,textiles,gold,silverandjade.

TheprivatehandicraftindustrybeganapproximatelyattheendoftheSpringandAutumnPeriod,andachievedgreatdevelopmentafterenteringtheWarringStatesPeriod.Therearemanyprivateworkshopsinimportantcategoriessuchassaltandiron.Forexample,Wei’sYidunwasfamousforoperatingHedongPondSalt,andthereweremanyironsmelters,suchasWei’sKong,Zhao’sZhuo,andGuoZong.Theyallbecamerichbysmeltingiron.HistorycalledKong’sfamily“getrichwiththousandsofgolds”.",GuoZongcanand"thekingisrich."Therearealsothosewhooperateotherminerals,suchasQin’sWidowofBaQing,whoownedtheminesthatproduceddanshainherancestors,soshewasableto"experienceinprofitingthenumberofgenerations."Mostoftheproductsofthegovernmentworkshopsarefordirectconsumption,andonlyapartofthemaresold.Theprivatesectorisnot,andtheproductsaremainlyforsale.Therefore,thedevelopmentofprivatehandicraftindustrycanprovidemorecommoditiestothemarketandplayanimportantroleintheprosperityofcommercialexchanges.

Commercialdevelopment

Duetothedevelopmentofagriculture,handicraftproduction,andtheexpansionofsocialdivisionoflabor,commercialdevelopmenthasbeenbroughtabout.Thegovernmentalsorecognizedthelegalexistenceofbusinessmenandleviedvarioustaxes.

Typesofmerchants:⑴Ordinarymerchantswhositinthequeueandsellhusbandsandwomenwithsmallbusiness.(2)Wealthybusinessmenhavebothpoliticalstatusandstrongfinancialresources.FordetailsofmerchantsintheWarringStatesPeriod,pleaserefertoSimaQian's"HistoricalRecords:BiographiesofCommodities".

Inordertomeettheneedsofcommercialdevelopment,therearemanytypesofWarringStatescurrencyandalargenumberofcirculations.Thestylesofcoppercoinsindifferentcountriesaredifferent.QiandYanaremainlyknife-shapedcoins,Sanjinaremainlyshovel-shapedclothcoins,QinandZhouaremainlyroundandperforatedcoins,andChuismainlyant-nosedcoinsshapedlikeshells..ThegoldcoinsincludeYingYanandChenYan,whichwerepressedintosquaresbytheStateofChu.IntheearlyyearsoftheWarringStatesperiod,theWeiStatesold30yuanperstonemillet,andthefarmer’sharvestof100acresoflandintheordinaryyears,excludingfoodandtaxes,leftforty-fivehundredmillet,whichcouldbesoldfor1,350.Money,itcoststhreehundreddollarsforeachhouseholdtotryouttheshrineintheSpringandAutumnPeriod.Eachpersonspendsthreehundreddollarsayearondressing,andthewholefamilyspends1,500dollars,whichislessthanfourhundredandfiftydollars.

Withthedevelopmentofcommodityexchange,currencyrelationshavebecomeactive.DuringtheWarringStatesperiod,notonlycurrenciesweremintedbyvariouscountries,butalsocurrenciesweremintedbymanycities.Therefore,currenciesindifferentregionshaddifferentstylesandvarieties.TherewerenofewerthanhundredsofWarringStatescurrenciesdiscoveredaftertheliberation.Judgingfromitscastingmaterials,therearecoppercoinsandgoldcoins.Intermsofitsshape,knifecoinsarepopularinQi,Yanandothercountries;shovelcoinsarecirculatedinSanjinandothercountries;圜coinsarecirculatedinQinandDong,WesternZhouandotherplaces;coppershells(antnosecoins)arecirculatedinChuState.TherearealsogoldcoinsinChuState:YingYanandChenYan.Thevarietyandlargecirculationreflectthedevelopmentofcommodityexchangeatthattime.Thevarietyofcurrenciesalsoreflectsthegreatregionality.

Withthedevelopmentofcurrency,loansharkshavealsobecomepopular.Inaddition,thereisapolicyofemphasizingagricultureandrestrainingbusiness.

Theriseofcities

Withthedevelopmentofagriculture,handicrafts,andcommerce,theformationoftheauthoritariancentralizedsystemhaspromotedtheconcentrationofpolitics,economy,andculture,andcausedthedevelopmentofcities.RepresentativesareLinzi,YanxiaduinQi,YingandDingtaoinChu,andHandaninZhao.Citiesarethestrongholdsfortherulingclasstoexercisetheirrulingpoweroverthecountryside.Theyarealsoplaceswhereofficials,landlords,merchants,andloansharkslivetogether.Citiesrulethecountrysidepoliticallyandexploitfarmerseconomically.

DuringtheWarringStatesperiod,thesocialeconomywasadvancingrapidly,butthedevelopmentofvariousregionswasuneven.QiandWeinotonlyhadgoodnaturalconditions,butalsohadearlysocialreforms,sotheybecamerelativelydevelopedcountriesintheearlyyearsoftheWarringStatesPeriod.Qinwasoriginallyrelativelybackward,becauseitwaslocatedinthefertilefieldsofGuanzhong,anditsreformswererelativelythorough,soitcamefrombehindandbecamethestrongestcountryinthelateWarringStatesperiod.Chuhasthelargestterritory,fertileland,andwell-developedhandicraftsandcommerce.ItwasonceapowerfulcountrywithQiandQin,butwasdestroyedbyQinbecauseofitsweakmilitarypower.

Culture

ThedisputebetweentheprincesbrokethesituationthatmadeZhou'scultureexclusive,andthelocalculturebegantohaveatrendof"localization".Theuseofcharacterscanberoughlydividedintofivemajorsystemsaccordingtoregions:EasternQi,NortheastYan,SouthernChu,NorthernJin,andWesternQin.Thecharactersofeachsystemaregenerallysimilar,withonlyasmallpartofthecharactersdifferent.Therefore,thereisnobigproblemwiththeexchangeofdocuments.

Academicthought

TheprosecreationintheWarringStatesperiodisveryprosperous,therearevarioushistoricalproses,prosebyZhuziandotherproseworks.Theseessaysarewritteninwordsthatareclosetospokenlanguage.TheymaybewildlikeZhuangzi,oreloquent,orfullofpassion,orcolorful,ortheymayrefertoHanFeizi'sfables,ortheymaybeasthoroughanalysisasMencius,ortheymaybelogicallyrigorous.Realismandromanticismcoincide,whichmakesQuYuan'spoemshavegreatartisticappeal.SongYu'sworks,whileimitatingQuYuan,developedandcreatedChuci,andchangedtheFustyleintheSaostyle,whichhadagreatinfluenceontheliterarycreationoflatergenerations.

IntheWarringStatesPeriod,thedrasticsocialchangesputforwardaseriesofrequirementsforacademicculture.Coupledwiththeformationofthescholarclassandtheadvocacyoftherulers,manyschoolsofthoughtappearedoneafteranother,formingasituationofcontentionamongahundredschoolsofthought.Atthattime,inadditiontothetwoschoolsofConfucianismandTaoism,therewerealsotheMoSchoolrepresentedbyMoDi,theLegalistsrepresentedbyHanFeiandShangYang,theYinYangfamilyrepresentedbyZouYan,andGongsunLongziastherepresentative.Thefamousstrategists,representedbySunBin,farmersrepresentedbyXuShi,politicalexpertsrepresentedbyZhangYi,GongsunYan,andSuQin,andmiscellaneousfamiliesrepresentedbyLuBuwei.Allfactionsandfamilieshavewrittenbooksandsaid,taughtdiscipleswidely,participatedinpolitics,criticizedeachother,andpenetratedeachother,andacademicthoughtwasextremelyprosperous.Qinunifiedthesixcountries,advocatedlegalism,usedbothYinandYangschools,burnedbooksandconfessedtoConfucianism,believedinviolence,andexertedtheextremeexaggerationoflegalismonthemonarchy.

Ahundredschoolsofthoughtcontend

TheSpringandAutumnPeriodandtheWarringStatesPeriodisaveryimportantperiodinChinesehistory.Thestruggleiscomplexandfierce.Scholarsorthinkersrepresentingpoliticalforcesofvariousfactionsproceedfromtheinterestsoftheirownclassorgrouptoexplainorputforwardtheiropinionsontheuniverse,society,andeverything.Theywrotebooksandsaid,recruiteddisciples,talkedloudly,andarguedwitheachother.Inthisway,averyactiveandrare"contendingofahundredschoolsofthought"situationappearedinthefieldofthought.Theso-called"HundredScholars"doesnotactuallyrefertoahundredschools.TherearemainlyConfucianism,Mohism,Taoism,andLegalism,followedbyYinandYang,miscellaneous,famous,politicalstrategists,peasants,andsoon.Latergenerationsreferredtothesenineas"NineStreams."Thesayingof"threeteachingsandnineliu"comesfromhere.TheculturalthoughtsofvariousschoolsandschoolslaidthefoundationoftheentirefeudaleracultureandoccupiedanimportantpositioninthehistoryofancientChineseculture.

DuringtheWarringStatesPeriod,theoutstandingastronomerQiRenGanderhad"AstronomicalAstrology"andWeiRenShiShenhad"Astronomy".Theyfoundthatthefiveplanets(Mars)andVenus(Taibai)areretrograde.TheydeterminedthelengthoftherendezvouscycleofVenusandJupiter,anddeterminedthattheperiodofMarsis1.9yearsandthatofJupiteristwelveyears.Thisisconsistentwithmodernscience.Themeasurementisverysimilar.ShiShen'smeasurementofthe28celestialdistanceandthecelestialdegreeofsomeotherstarsisamajorachievementintheearlyquantitativeobservationofstars.Latergenerationswillcollectivelycallthetwoworks"GanShiXingJing".DuringtheWarringStatesPeriod,thedivisionandarrangementofthetwenty-foursolartermswereroughlycomplete,whichplayedanimportantroleinagriculturalproduction.TheQinDynastyimplementedtheZhuanxucalendar,withXiaZhengOctoberasthebeginningoftheyearandSeptemberastheendoftheyear.

Inthe"Mojing"oftheWarringStatesPeriod,therearemanygeometricpropositions,suchasequidistantbetweentwoparallellines,threepointsinastraightline,theradiusofthesamecircle,andthefourcornersoftherectangleareallrightangles.Inventedthecalculationtool,countingchips,usedtensmallsticksindifferentshapestorepresentnumbers,andperformedcalculations,whichgreatlyacceleratedthespeedofcalculation.Inaddition,theeightopticalbarsarealsoanimportantachievementoftheinkclassics.In"KaoGongJi",therearesimplecalculationmethodsoffractionsandconceptsandnamesofspecialangles.Thebook"ZhouTuSuanJing"mayhavebeenwrittenintheearlyHanDynasty,butitisasummaryoftheexperienceofsurveyinginthepre-Qinperiod,whichusedquitecomplicatedscoringalgorithmsandKaipingmethods.

TheknowledgeofmechanicsisalsowellexplainedintheMojing.Itisbelievedthatforceisameansofthehumanbodytotransferandchangemotion.Itispointedoutthatthebalanceofleverageisrelatedtotheweightatbothendsandthelengthofthearmofforce.Itisfoundthatthesizeoftheshiphasacertainequilibriumrelationshipwiththedepthofitssinkinginthewater.Itisasimpleexpressionoftheprincipleofbuoyancy.

ImportantHouState

QinState

[Note]QinZhaowasoriginallyabranchofthesameancestor,sothesamesurnameisYingshiZhao.ThereisanothersayingaccordingtoFengGuoshi.Thisentryrefersto"HistoricalRecordsofQinBenji".Inthepre-Qinperiod,menalwayscalltheirfamilyname(clan+firstname),andwomenaddlastname(generation/mothercountry/firstname+lastname).

QiGuo

[Note]Inthebronzeinscriptions,theQioftheLvclaniscalled"Qi"or"Qihou",andtheQioftheTianclaniscalled"Chen"or"ChenHou"(seeChenHouWudun,ChenHouWugui,ChenHouYinziGe).ChenHouisTianHou.Inancienttimes,"Chen"and"Tian"werehomophonic,andtheybelongedtoDingmu,Zhenbu,andPingsheng.Atthebeginningofthefoundingofthecountry,TianQiexistedatthesametimeastheQihouofLu'sfamily.

KingdomofChu

魏国

赵国

韩国

燕国

宋国

中山国

【注】秦氏，宋氏，燕氏都是其国亡国后才出现的。

诸侯兴亡