mikrobiologia

Definition

Researchonthelawsoflifeactivitiessuchasmicrobialmorphology,physiologyandbiochemistry,geneticvariation,ecologicaldistributionandclassificationevolution,andapplythemtoindustrialfermentation,medicalhygiene,bioengineeringandenvironmentProtectionandotherpracticalfieldsofscience.

Subjects

Microbiologyisanimportantbasiccourseorprofessionalbasiccourserequiredforbiologymajorsincollegesanduniversities,anditisalsothetheoreticalandtechnicalbasisofmodernhigh-techbiotechnology.Geneticengineering,cellengineering,enzymeengineeringandfermentationengineeringareformedanddevelopedonthebasisofmicrobiologyprinciplesandtechnology;microbiologyisalsooneoftheimportantcornerstonesforthedevelopmentofbiologicalmajorsandmodernizationofagricultureandforestryinhigheragriculturalandforestrycolleges.Withthewidespreadapplicationofbiotechnology,microbiologywillhaveahugeimpactonmodernandfuturehumanproductionactivitiesandlives.

Historicalorigin

Experiencestage

Sinceancienttimes,humanshavebeenawareofthelifeactivitiesofmicroorganismsandtheireffectsindailylifeandproductionpractices.ThehistoryofChina'suseofmicroorganismsforwinemakingcanbetracedbacktotheLongshanCultureperiodmorethan4,000yearsago.Thesaucemakingtechnologywasinvented2600yearsago.Theword"wine"isengravedintheoracleboneinscriptionsoftheYinandShangera.IntheQiMinYaoShu(533~544)byJiaSixieoftheNorthernWeiDynasty,methodsofmakingkojifromgrains,makingwine,makingsauce,makingvinegar,andpicklingvegetablesarelisted.

InthestonecarvingsleftbehindinancientGreece,thereisarecordoftheoperationprocessofwinemaking.DuringtheSpringandAutumnandWarringStatesPeriod,Chinausedthefunctionofmicroorganismstodecomposeorganicmattertodecontaminatemanureandaccumulatemanure.The"BookofPanSheng"inthefirstcenturyADproposedasystemofripemanurefieldsandintercroppingofmelonsandadzukibeans.Inthe2ndcentury"ShenNong'sMateriaMedica",thereisarecordofwhitebasssilkwormcuringdiseases.Inthe"ZuoZhuan"ofthe6thcentury,thereisarecordofthetreatmentofdiarrheawithwheatqu.Inthe10thcentury"YiZongJinJian",thereisarecordaboutthemethodofvaccination.In1796,theBritishJennerinventedthevacciniavaccine,whichlaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofimmunology.

Morfologinen vaihe

1600-luvulla hollantilainen Leeuwenhoek käytti kotitekoista yksinkertaista mikroskooppia (joka voidaan suurentaa 160-260 kertaa) liian tarkkailemaan viinikiveä, sadevettä, kaivovettä ja kasvisfuusiota. bakteerien eri muodot (pallomaiset, sauvan muotoiset, kierteiset jne.), joita ihminen näkee varhaisimmat "pienet eläimet". Pian sen jälkeen italialainen kasvitieteilijäP .AmiKellyä käytettiin myös yksinkertaisena mikroskooppia, jotta voidaan tarkkailla sienen morfologiaa.Vuonna 1838,GermanzoologistC.G.Kirjassa "Silmät ovat todellisia organismeja", Ehrenberg jakoi siliaattien luokan 22 perheeseen, mukaan lukien 3 bakteeriperhettä,5yhdeksässä bakteeriperheessä (yhdessä) Saksalainen kasvitieteilijä F.J.Cosidi paljasti sauvamaisten bakteerien itiöt.Lämpömääritettiin bakteeritkasvivaltakuntaanja määritti bakteerien taksonomisen tilan kuudentuhannen vuoden kuluttua.

Physiologicalstage

Theresearchofmicrobiologyhasenteredthephysiologicalstagesincethe1860s.FrenchscientistL.Pasteur'sresearchonmicrobialphysiologylaidthefoundationformodernmicrobiology.Pasteur,achemist,setfootinmicroorganismstotreat"winedisease"and"silkwormdisease."Hearguedthatthebrewingofwineandvinegarandthecorruptionofsomesubstancesarefermentationprocessescausedbycertaintypesofmicroorganisms,notfermentationorcorruptionthatproducesmicroorganisms.Thefamousretortexperimenthasindisputablyconfirmedthis;hebelievesthatfermentationItistherespirationofmicroorganismsinanenvironmentwithoutair,andthedeteriorationofwineistheresultofthegrowthofharmfulmicroorganisms;hefurtherprovesthatdifferentmicroorganismshaveuniquemetabolicfunctions,whichrequiredifferentlivingconditionsandcausedifferenteffects;heAheatsterilizationmethodtopreventdeteriorationofwinewasproposed,whichwaslatercalledPasteursterilizationmethod.Usingthismethod,thenewlyproducedwineandbeercanbestoredforalongtime.Kochhasmadegreatcontributionstotheemergingmedicalmicrobiology.KochfirstarguedthatBacillusanthracisisthecausativebacteriumofanthracnose,andthenhediscoveredthecausativebacteriaoftuberculosisandcholera,andadvocatedtheuseofdisinfectionandsterilizationmethodstopreventthespreadofthesediseases;hisstudentsalsodiscovereddiphtheria,pneumonia,tetanus,andplague.Suchpathogenicbacterialedpeopletoattachgreatimportancetobacteriaatthattimeandinthefollowingdecades;hepioneeredthestainingmethodofbacteria,usingagarasasolidificationmediumtocultivatebacteriaandseparatesinglecoloniestoobtainpureculture;HestipulatedthemethodsandproceduresforidentifyingpathogenicbacteriaandputforwardthefamousKoch'slaw.In1860,theBritishsurgeonJ.Listerapplieddrugstosterilizeandcreatedasterilesurgicaloperationmethod.In1901,thefamousbacteriologistandzoologistИ.И.Mechnikovdiscoveredtheeffectofwhitebloodcellsonphagocytosisofbacteriaandcontributedtothedevelopmentofimmunology.

Russian-bornFrenchmicrobiologistC.H.Basedonthediscoveryofsulfurbacteriain1887andthediscoveryofnitrifyingbacteriain1890,Vinogradzdemonstratedthemicrobiologicalprocessofsulfidationandnitrificationinsoilandthechemicalenergyandnutritioncharacteristicsofthesebacteria.Hewasthefirsttodiscovertheanaerobicautogenousnitrogen-fixingbacteria,andusedtheprinciplesandmethodsofinorganicculturemedium,selectiveculturemediumandenrichmentculturetostudythelifeactivitiesofvariousphysiologicalgroupsofsoilbacteria,andrevealedthatsoilmicroorganismsparticipateinthetransformationofsoilmaterials.Thisrolehaslaidthecornerstoneforthedevelopmentofsoilmicrobiology.

In1892,RussianplantphysiologistД.И.Ivanovskydiscoveredthattobaccomosaicpathogensareorganismsthataresmallerthanbacteria,canpassthroughbacterialfilters,andcannotbedetectedbyopticalmicroscopes.Theyarecalledfilterviruses.From1915to1917,F.W.TwaterandF.H.DeHerrelobservedtheappearanceofplaquesonthebacterialcoloniesandthelysisphenomenonintheculturesolution,andfoundbacterialviruses-phages.Thediscoveryofviruseshasexpandedpeople'sconceptofbiologyfromcellulartonon-cellular.

Inthisstage,theestablishmentofmicrobialmanipulationtechnologyandresearchmethodsisauniquesymbolofthedevelopmentofmicrobiology.

Biochemistrystage

Sincethe20thcentury,thepenetrationofbiochemistryandbiophysicsintomicrobiology,coupledwiththeinventionofelectronmicroscopeandtheapplicationofisotopetraceratoms,haspromotedmicroorganismsThedevelopmentoflearningtothestageofbiochemistry.In1897,theGermanscholarE.Bischnerdiscoveredthatthecell-freeextractofyeastcanfermentsugarliquidtoproduceethanollikeyeast,andthusunderstandtheenzymaticprocessofyeastalcoholfermentation,combiningmicrobiallifeactivitieswithenzymechemistry.G.Neubergetal.'sresearchonyeastphysiologyandtheanalysisofalcoholfermentationintermediateproducts,A.J.Kleivo’sresearchonmicrobialmetabolismandthecomparativebiochemicalresearchdirectionshepioneered,aswellasaseriesofbasicphysiologicalandmetabolicpathwaystudiesconductedbymanyotherpeopleusingEscherichiacoliasmaterials,haveclarifiedthelawsandregulationsofmetabolismoforganisms.Thebasicprincipleofcontrollingitsmetabolism,andexpandingtheuseofmicroorganismsonthebasisofcontrollingmicrobialmetabolism,developingenzymology,andpromotingthedevelopmentofbiochemistry.Sincethe1930s,peoplehaveusedmicroorganismsfortheindustrialproductionofethanol,acetone,butanol,glycerol,variousorganicacids,aminoacids,proteins,oils,etc.

In1929,A.FlemingdiscoveredthatPenicilliumcaninhibitthegrowthofStaphylococcus,revealedtheantagonisticrelationshipbetweenmicroorganismsanddiscoveredpenicillin.In1949,S.AWaxmandiscoveredstreptomycinbasedonthedataaccumulatedinhisyearsofstudyingsoilmicroorganisms.Sincethen,moreandmorenewantibioticshavebeendiscovered.Inadditiontomedicaluse,theseantibioticsarealsousedtocontrolanimalandplantdiseasesandfoodpreservation.

MolecularBiology

In1941,G.W.BiddleandE.L.TatumusedX-raysandultravioletraystoirradiateAlternaria,causingittomutateandobtainauxotrophs.Theirresearchonauxotrophscannotonlyfurtherunderstandtheroleandnatureofgenes,butalsolaythefoundationformoleculargenetics.In1944,O.T.Averyconfirmedforthefirsttimethatdeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)isthesubstancethatcausesthegenetictransformationofpneumococcalcapsuleformation.In1953,J.D.WatsonandF.H.C.CrickproposedthedoublehelixstructuremodelofDNAmoleculesandthetheoryofhalf-reservednucleicacidreplication.H.Frankel-Conradandothersprovedthatribonucleicacid(RNA)isacarrierofgeneticinformationthroughtobaccomosaicvirusrecombinationexperiments,whichplayedanimportantroleinlayingthefoundationofmolecularbiology.Later,hediscoveredthemechanismoftransferribonucleicacid(tRNA),thetheoryofgenetripletcodes,themicrostructureofviruses,theprocessofinfectionandproliferation,andthemechanismofbiologicalnitrogenfixation,andotherimportanttheoriesinmicrobiology,demonstratingthebroadapplicationprospectsofmicrobiology..In1957,A.KornbergandotherssuccessfullycarriedouttheinvitrocombinationandmanipulationofDNA.Theresearchofprokaryoticmicrobialgenerecombinationhasmadecontinuousprogress.Insulinhasbeenfermentedwithgene-transferredEscherichiacoli,andinterferonhasalsobeenproducedbybacteria.Theresearchofmodernmicrobiologywillcontinuetodeepentothemolecularlevelanddeveloptothedepthandbreadthofproduction.Branches

Microbiologyhasexperiencedmorethanacenturyofdevelopment,andalargenumberofbrancheshavebeendifferentiated.Accordingtoincompletestatistics(1990),therehavebeenasmanyas181subjects.Accordingtoitsnature,itcanbesimplysummarizedintothefollowing6categories:

⑴Accordingtothepurposeofstudyingthebasiclawsoflifeactivitiesofmicroorganisms,thegeneralsubjectiscalledGeneralMicrobiology,anditisdividedintosubjects.Suchasmicrobialtaxonomy,microbialphysiology,microbialgenetics,microbialecologyandmolecularmicrobiology.

⑵Mikrobitutkimusobjektien mukaan, kuten bakteriologia, mykologia (mykologia), virologia, prokaryoottibiologia, autotrofinen bakteeriabiologia ja anaerobinen bakteeriabiologia jne.

⑶Accordingtotheecologicalenvironmentwherethemicroorganismsarelocated,suchassoilmicrobiology,microecology,marinemicrobiology,environmentalmicrobiology,watermicrobiologyandcosmicmicrobiology.

⑷Mikrobiologian alan mukaan se on jaettu yleisiin tieteenaloihin, joita kutsutaansoveltavaksi mikrobiologiaksi, ala-aloiksi, kuten teollisuusmikrobiologia, maatalousmikrobiologia, lääketieteellinen mikrobiologia, lääkemikrobiologia, diagnostinen mikrobiologia, antibiootit, F,etMikrobiologia.

⑸Accordingtotheintersectionandintegrationofdisciplines,suchaschemicalmicrobiology,analyticalmicrobiology,microbialbioengineering,microbialchemicaltaxonomy,microbialnumericaltaxonomy,microbialgeochemistryandmicrobialinformatics,etc.

⑹Accordingtoexperimentalmethodsandtechniques,suchasexperimentalmicrobiology,microbiologicalresearchmethods,etc.

Lajit

Yleiskatsaus

Mikro-organismien merkitys:ei-taksonomiset substantiivit,johdettu ranskan sanasta "mikrobi".Se on yleinen termi pienille, yksisoluisille tai monisoluisille soluille, joilla on yksinkertainen yksilöllinen rakenne, ilman kehittyneempiä soluja.

Tyyppi:Mikro-organismien ryhmä on erittäin monimutkainen, mukaan lukien: virukset ilman solurakennetta, viroidit, viruksen kaltaiset jne.,

Prokaryootit, aktinomykeetit, riketsiat, eukaryooteihin kuuluvat hiivat ja homeet, yksisoluiset levät, alkueläimet jne.

Kahden maailman järjestelmä

Eläin: sillä ei ole soluseinämää, se voi liikkua eikä suorita fotosynteesiä.

Kasvikunnan kasvit: niissä on soluseinä, ei liiku ja voi suorittaa fotosynteesin.

ThreeRealms:Protista:(EHHaeckel,ehdotus1866)

FiveRealmsSystem

ProkaryoteMonera:bakteerit, aktinomykeetit jne.

Protista: levät, alkueläimet, limahome jne.

Sienet: hiiva, home

Eläimet:

Kasvit:

TheFiveRealmsSystemisbasedonthelevelofcellstructuredifferentiationandthetissuetypesrelatedtothethreemainnutritionalmethodsofphotosynthesis,absorptionandfeeding.Sixrealms:plusthevirusrealm.

ThreeRealms(Domains)System

AfterWoesecomparedthe16SrRNAsequencesofmorethan60strainsofbacteriawiththeoligonucleotidesequencecataloginganalysismethod,hewassurprisedtofindthattherewerenomethanogenicbacteriaatall.Thosesequencesthatarecharacteristicofbacteria,soproposedthethirdformoflife-archaebacteria(archaebacteria).Subsequently,heperformed16SrRNA(18SrRNA)sequenceanalysisandcomparisonofalargenumberofstrains,includingsomeeukaryotes,andfoundthatextremehalophilesandextremeacidophilicbacteriaarealsothesameasmethanogenicbacteria,withdifferentandothercharacteristics.Bacteriaarealsodifferentfromthesequencefeaturesoftheirnuclearorganisms,andtheyhavemanycommonsequencefeatures.Soitwasproposedtodivideorganismsintothreekingdoms(Kingdom)(laterrenamedasthreedomains):Archaea,EubacteriaandEukaryotes.In1990,inordertoavoidseeingarchaeaasatypeofbacteria,herenamedthethreerealms(domains):Bacteria,ArchaeaandEukarya,andconstructedThephylogenetictreeofthethreerealms(domains).

Ominaisuudet

1. Pieni koko ja suuri erityispinta-ala

Thesizeofmicroorganismsismeasuredinμm,butthespecificsurfacearea(surfacearea/volume)islarge,whichmusthaveahugenutrientabsorption,metabolicwasteexcretionandenvironmentalinformationacceptance.Thisfeatureisalsothekeytothedifferencebetweenmicroorganismsandalllargeorganisms.

Esimerkki:Lactobacillus: 120 000;Munat: 1,5;Ihmiset (200 puntaa): 0,3

2.Suuri imukyky ja nopea muunnos

Thischaracteristicprovidesasufficientmaterialbasisforhigh-speedgrowthandreproductionandtheproductionofalargenumberofmetabolites.

Forexample:3gramsofhamstersconsumefoodequaltotheirbodyweighteveryday;1gramofflashgreenhummingbirdconsumestwicetheirbodyweighteveryday;Escherichiacoliconsumes2000timesthebodyweightofsugarperhour;fermentedlactoseThebacteriacandecomposelactose1,000to10,000timesitsownweightwithin1hourtoproducelacticacid;1kilogramofyeastcellscanfermentthousandsofkilogramsofsugarinonedaytoproducealcohol

3.Vauras kasvu ja nopea lisääntyminen

Extremelyhighgrowthandreproductionspeed,suchasE.colisplitsevery20-30minutes.Ifitdoesnotstopdividing,thebacterialcountof2.2×10^43willincreasein48hours,nutrientconsumption,metabolicaccumulation,Limitgrowthrate.Thisfeaturecanconvertalargenumberofsubstratesintousefulproductsinashorttime,shorteningthescientificresearchcycle.Therearealsodownsides,suchasdiseaseandfoodmildew.Forexample:Escherichiacoli(E.coli)cellscandivideevery12.5-20minutesunderoptimalgrowthconditions;inliquidmedium,theconcentrationofbacterialcellsisgenerally108-109cells/ml;Brevibacteriumglutamicum:Shakebottleseed→50tonsfermenter:thenumberofcellscanincrease3.2billiontimesin52hours.Usingthisfeatureofmicroorganismscanrealizeshort-periodandhigh-efficiencyproductioninthefermentationindustry.Forexample,whenproducingfreshyeast,itcanbeharvestedonceinalmost12hours,anditcanbeharvestedhundredsoftimesayear.

Tablethegenerationtimeanddailyproliferationrateofseveralmicroorganisms

*on Candida-suvun (Nostoc) vanha nimi, joka on sama prokaryootti kuin bakteeri.

4. Vahva soveltuvuus ja huonovointisuus

Extremelyflexibleandadaptable,withamazingadaptabilitytoextremeenvironments,andgeneticmaterialiseasytomutate.Moreimportantly,therearemanytypesofphysiologicalmetabolismandmetabolitesofmicroorganisms.Example:Microbeshavebeenfoundinsedimentaryrocksof10,000metersdeepsea,85kilometersabovethesky,128metersand427metersbelowtheformation.Thenumberofmicroorganisms,accordingto1972:

5. Laaja jakelu ja useita tyyppejä

Widedistributionareaandwidedistributionenvironment.Therearemanytypesofphysiologicalmetabolism,andtherearemanykindsofmetabolites.Moreimportantly,therearemanytypesofphysiologicalmetabolismandmetabolitesofmicroorganisms.Microorganismscanbefoundinanyenvironmentwhereotherorganismslive,andtherearealsomicroorganismsinextremeenvironmentswhereotherorganismscannotsurvive.

Forexample:Penicilliumchrysogenum(Penicilliumchrysogenum)produced20unitsofpenicillinpermilliliteroffermentationbrothin1943.Formorethan40years,throughtheunremittingeffortsofmicrobialgeneticbreedingworkersaroundtheworld,Thevariabilityofthebacteria'syieldhasgraduallyaccumulated,coupledwiththeimprovementoffermentationconditions,thefermentationlevelofadvancedcountriesintheworldhasexceeded50,000unitspermilliliter,orevencloseto100,000units.Thevariationofthequantitativetraitsofmicroorganismsandtheextentthatthebreedingcanincreasetheyieldisabsolutelyimpossibleintheworkofanimalandplantbreeding.Becauseofthis,almostallmicrobialfermentationfactoriesattachgreatimportancetostrainselectionandbreeding.

⒍Helppomuuttua ja tuottaa mutaatioita

Thesmallmicrobesandthelargespecificsurfaceareamakethemicrobeseasilyaffectedbyenvironmentalconditions.Certainnutritionalfactorschange,individualmicrobesconsciouslyandforcedtoproducegeneticstructuralchanges,resultinginvariants.Accordingtostatistics,theprobabilityofindividualmicrobialvariationisoneinamillionundernaturalconditions.Becausemicroorganismsarepronetoproducemutants,peopletakeadvantageofthecharacteristicsofmicroorganismstocarryoutmicrobialmutagenesis,andthenscreenformicroorganismstrainswithcertainpurposecharacteristics,suchasincreasedyield,auxotrophs,andsoon.

Rooli

1.Rooli materiaalikierrossaluonnossa

2.Ilman ja veden puhdistus, jäteveden käsittely

3. Teollisuus ja maataloustuotanto: bakteerit, aineenvaihduntatuotteet, aineenvaihduntatoiminnot

4.Avustukset biotieteisiin

Researchdirections

Microbiologydisciplines:Chinaisoneofthecountrieswiththerichestmicrobialresourcesintheworld.Researchonmicrobialresourcesreflectsthelevelofbasicmicrobiologyresearch,isthebasisfornationalinvestigations,resourceprotection,developmentandsustainableuse,andisthebasisforbiodiversityresearchandendangeredspeciesprotection.Italsoincludesmicrobialmolecularbiologyandbiotechnology.Thefoundationofthevariousbranchesofmicrobiology.Researchinthisfieldwillacceleratetheinvestigation,collection,andsystematicclassificationofmicrobiologicalresources,expandthecollectionofmicrobialstrainsandspecimens,andestablishamicrobialspeciesresourcebankinChina,makingitthelargestmicrobialstraincollectioncenterinAsiaandthelargestinAsiaHerbariumofFungi.Insystematicclassificationstudies,newmethods,newtechnologies,andnewideasaregenerallyintroduced,andbiologicaldiversity,systemevolution,andmicrobialecologyresearcharecarriedouttoprovidematerialsforlarge-scalescreeningoffunctionalsubstances.Amongthem,extremophilesandmicroorganismsthatareharmfulorbeneficialtocropsTheresearchhasgraduallybecomethecurrenthotresearchfield.

Themajorresearchdirectionsofmicrobiologyinclude:fungiandlichenology,microbialresources,taxonomy,systematics,diversity,populationgeneticsandevolution,molecularmechanismofcooperativemetabolism,environmentalmicrobiology,industrialmicrobiology,systemsBiotechnology,microbialphysiology,microbialphysiology,microbialmetabolism,microbialecology,microbialbiochemicalengineering,molecularvirology,molecularimmunology.

Specificapplication

Modernclinicalmicrobiologyisacross-disciplinethatcombinesclinicalmedicine,basicmedicineandpreventivemedicine.Itisalsooneoftheimportantandmaturespecialtiesinlaboratorymedicine..Thisemergingdisciplinerequiresmicrobiologistsandlaboratorytechnicianstoworktogether.Therearefourspecifictasks:(1)Makerapidandaccurateinspectionreportsonmicrobialspecimenstomeetclinicalneedsinatimelymanner;(2)conductrelevantantimicrobialdrugresistanceVarioustrialsondrugproperties,acceptconsultationsontherationalapplicationofantibacterialdrugs;(3)Closelyintegrateclinicalpractice,discuss,researchanddealwithissuesrelatedtoinfectiousdiseaseswithclinicians;(4)participateinthemanagementandrationalapplicationofantibacterialdrugsHospitalinfectionmonitoring,controlandmanagement.Thisrequiresclinicalmicrobiologiststonotonlycompletelaboratorywork,butalsocompleterelatedclinicalwork,andbecomestaffandconsultantsforinfectioncontrolandclinicalapplicationofantibacterialdrugs.

Pathogenicdiagnosis

1.Ensurethereliabilityofclinicalspecimens:Properspecimencollectionisthemostimportantstepinthediagnosisofinfectiousdiseases.Cliniciansarerequiredtocorrectlycollectclinicalspecimensthatcanrepresentthesiteofinfection,andwidelyuseprotectiveswabs,qualifiedcontainers,andtransportmediatopreventthemicrobesinthespecimensfromdyingduetotoxicsubstances.

2.Comprehensiveunderstandingofthenormalfloraofthebody:Understandingthenormalfloraofthehumanbodyisanecessaryprerequisiteforbacterialtesting.Itisnecessarytounderstandtheconcept,distributionandtypesofnormalflora,conditionalpathogensandendogenousinfections,dysbacteriosisanddualityIntheconceptofinfection,neithershouldthebacteriaisolatedfromallspecimensberegardedaspathogenicbacteria,norcantheendogenousinfectioncausedbynormalcolonizingbacteriabeeasilyletgo.

3.Threesetsandonecombination:Qualitative,quantitativeandlocalizationanalysisshouldbedoneduringseparationandidentification,andcombinedwiththeconditionofthedisease.Itisrequiredtodeterminetheinspectionprocedure,selecttheculturemediumandtheappropriateidentificationtestaccordingtothespecificconditionsoftheclinicalandspecimens.Itisnecessarytodeterminewhethertheisolatedbacteriaarepathogenicbacteria,conditionalpathogenicbacteria,ornon-pathogenicbacteria(qualitative).Atthesametime,theremustbearoughestimateofthenumberofbacteria,andsemi-quantitativeandquantitativecultureshouldbecarriedoutifnecessary.Thesignificanceofthebacteriaisolatedinthehumanbodypartshouldbejudgedbyreferringtothequalitativeandquantitativeanalysisofthemicroorganism;ifthebacteriaareisolatedinthesterilepart(suchasblood,cerebrospinalfluid),nomatterwhatkindofmicroorganismandthequantity,itisimportantMeaning(positioninganalysis).Whenperformingthe"threedeterminations"analysis,wemustcombinetheconditionandobservewhetheritisconsistentwiththecondition.

4.Providefastandaccuratepathogenicdiagnosis:Whencliniciansprovidepatientswithclinicaldiagnosisinformationandappropriateclinicalspecimens,andobtainepidemiologicaldataasmuchaspossible,conductmicrobiologicalexaminationsandantimicrobialdrugsusceptibilitytests,requiringtimely,Comprehensivelyanalyzethetestresults,provideclinicallyaccuratepathogenicdiagnosis,sothatthepatientcanbetreatedappropriately.Althoughtheisolationandidentificationofmicroorganismsisstillregardedasthegoldstandardforpathogenicdetection,thetraditionalbacteriologicalidentificationmethodbasedonthe"growthoflivingbacteria"isslowandcannotadapttoclinicalneeds.Itisrequiredtobebasedondirectinspectionofspecimens.,Suchasmorphology,staining,antigendetectionandnucleicaciddetection(nucleicacidhybridization,PCRand16SrRNAanalysis),detectionofpathogenicgenes(pathogenicislands,virulenceislands)anddrugresistancegenes.Trytomakeaquickdiagnosisasmuchaspossible.

5.Timelyreporting:Inordertoeffectivelytransformlaboratorydataintoclinicallyusefulinformation,pathogenicmicroorganismdiagnosisreportsshouldimplementathree-stagereportingsystem,thatis,whenasmearorculturepositiveresultappears,whenasensitivetestresultcomesout,andafterthefinalresultcomesoutReportinatimelymanner.

6.Strengthenqualitycontrolandincreaseinspectionitems:Theclinicalmicrobiologyroommuststrengthenqualitycontroltoensuretheinspectionqualityofvariousspecimens,provideareliablebasisfortheclinic,andmeetthevariousinspectionitemsrequiredbytheclinic.Thecurrentclinicalmicrobiologyroomshouldaddtestitemsbasedontheactualsituationoftheunit.Someitemsthattheclinicalrequirementspayattentiontoare:1)bacteriologicalscreeningandsemi-quantitativeculturemethodsofrespiratoryspecimens;2)detectionofatypicalpathogensoftherespiratorytract,includingchlamydiaandmycoplasmaAndLegionella;3)non-tuberculousmycobacteriacultureanddrugsusceptibility;4)detectionofspecialpathogensinimmunosuppressedororgantransplantpatients,suchascytomegalovirus,pneumocystiscarinii,etc.;5)pathogensofantibiotic-relateddiarrhea(MainlythedetectionofClostridiumdifficile);6)therapiddetectionanddrugsensitivitytestofinvasivefungi.

Osallistu kliiniseen konsultaatioon

(1) Hanki kliinisiä tietoja ja tee oikea-aikaisia ​​ja tarkkoja mikrobiologisia raportteja

ClinicalinfectiousdiseasesManypathogensareofteninvolved,andnosingletestcandetectallpotentialpathogens.Therefore,clinicalinformationisanimportantreferenceforselectingtestmethods.Theclinicianshouldwritedownthespeculativediagnosisofthepatientwhenissuingthelaboratorytestform,sothatthelaboratorystaffcanchooseareasonabletestprocedureandtestmethodbasedonthis,andcanguidetheclinictocollectappropriatespecimenscorrectly;whenthelaboratorybeginstohaveexperimentalresults,Cliniciansmustbenotifiedintimesothattheycanre-evaluatethediagnosisandtreatmentplan.

(2)Vaikeiden mikrobiraporttien tulkinta ja kuuleminen

Manyinfectiousdiseases,especiallyhospitalinfections,havealargepathogenicspectrumanddrugsensitivityspectrum.Variety.Inthepast,raremicroorganismsfrequentlyappearedontheinspectionreport,andthemethodofdrugsusceptibilitytest,thetestedspecies,andtheinterpretationoftheresultshavealsochangedalot.Itisoftendifficultforclinicianstocorrectlyunderstandanduseclinicalmicrobiologicalexaminationdata.Inthefaceofthissituation,theclinicalmicrobiologydepartmentshouldactivelycommunicatewithclinicianstohelpsolvethedifficultiesofcliniciansininterpretingmicrobiologicaltestsanddrugsusceptibilityresultsreports.Pointouttheidentificationandjudgmentofnormalflora,contaminatedbacteriaandinfectiousbacteria;themeaningofrareorrarebacteria;possiblereasonswhencultureisnegative;judgmentcriteriaandlimitationsofdrugsusceptibilitytestresults;drugresistancecharacteristicsofspecialdrug-resistantbacteria,etc.,Andaddnotestothereportwhennecessary.

(3) Mikrobiologin määrittäminen kliinisen ja mikrobiologian osaston välillä

Manyforeignhospitalshaveconsultationswithclinicalmicrobiologistsorlaboratoryphysicians,Consultationsystem.Ifthereisaproblemwiththesmearatthebeginningofthetest,theexaminershouldcontactthecliniciantodiscussthemeaningofthesmear.Physiciansandtechniciansinthemicrobiologydepartmentlookattheresultsofcultureanddrugsensitivitytogethereveryday,especiallytheresultsofsputumcultureshouldbecheckedwithdirectsmears,andcontactthewardintimeifproblemsarefound.

Itisrecommendedthataphysicianintheclinicalmicrobiologydepartmentparticipateinthemorningmeetingoftheinfectiondepartment,respiratorydepartmentorICUofourhospitaleveryday,andreturntoreportthesituationoftheinfectedpatienttothephysician.Orsenddoctorsregularlytobringrelevanttestresultsandparticipateininfectionseminarsinsomeclinicaldepartmentstospecificallysolvetheinfectiontreatmentproblems.Forexample,toparticipateinseminarsintheICU,transplantationdepartment,oncologydepartment,neurosurgery,pediatrics,etc.,forpatientswithpositivebloodculture,positivecerebrospinalfluidtest,orsevereburninfection,themicrobiologistshouldtaketheinitiativetovisitthewardandparticipateinthediscussionoftreatmentoptions.Forpatientswithbacteremiaorsepsis,assistinfindingtheprimaryfocus.Clinicalmicrobiologistsshouldrecordtheiropinionsinthemedicalrecordsafterpatrollingpatients,anddiscusswiththeclinicalphysiciananddirectorifnecessary.Ifeachclinicaldepartmenthasinfectionproblems,youcancontacttheclinicalmicrobiologydepartmenttoinquireaboutthesignificanceofthetestreportorrequestaconsultation.TheDepartmentofMicrobiologyholdsaseminaroninfectioncasesonceaweektodiscussthesituationofinfectedpatients,exchangefindings,andexchangeopinionsfromtheDepartmentofClinicalMicrobiologywiththeclinicaldepartment.Microbiologistsshouldalsoparticipateindailyinspectionsandreceiveclinicalconsultationsonmicrobiologicalissues.

Participateinantibacterialdrugs

Therationalapplicationofantibacterialdrugstoreduceoravoidtheproductionofdrug-resistantstrainsisamajorprobleminthecurrentanti-infectionfield.Theclinicalmicrobiologyroomplaysanimportantroleintherationaluseofantibiotics.effect.

Firstofall,wemustpayattentiontothepathogenicdiagnosisofinfection.Beforeusingantibacterialdrugs,cliniciansshouldcollectmultiplemicrobiologyspecimensforbacterialcultureanddrugsusceptibilitytesting.Themicrobiologydepartmentprovidesrapidandaccuratebacterialtestinganddrugsusceptibilityresultsfortheclinic.Inaddition,closecontactbetweenmicrobiologistsandcliniciansandparticipationinthetreatmentofpatientsisalsoanimportantmethodtocontrolthedosageofantibiotics.Microbiologistsshouldparticipateinthehospitalpharmacycommittee,participateintheformulationofguidelinesfortheuseofantibiotics,educationandtraining,supervisionandinspections,etc.Inthisregard,thepracticeofHongKongQueenMaryHospitalisthattheinfectionmonitoringnurseisresponsibleforvisitingtheinfectedcases.Whenthemisuseorunreasonableapplicationofantibacterialdrugsisfound,thedirectorofthemicrobiologydepartmentwillgivefeedbacktothedean,thedirectoroftherelevantdepartmentandtheparties,andachievebetterresults.

Participateinthemonitoring,controlandmanagementofnosocomialinfections

China’s"NosocomialInfectionManagementRegulations"clearlystatesthatthelaboratoryshouldperformthefollowingdutiesinthemanagementofnosocomialinfections:ResponsibleforroutinemicrobiologyofnosocomialinfectionsTocarryoutthecultivation,isolationandidentificationofpathogenicmicroorganismsofhospitalinfection,drugsusceptibilitytestinganddrugresistancemonitoringofspecialpathogens,regularsummaryandanalysis,feedbacktorelevantdepartments,andannouncementtothewholehospital;whennosocomialinfectionsareprevalentoroutbreaks,relevantInspectionwork.

Theroleofclinicalmicrobiologylaboratoryinthemonitoring,controlandmanagementofnosocomialinfectionsincludes:(1)strengtheningpathogenicmonitoringasthebasisfordeterminingnosocomialinfection;(2)strengtheningmonitoringofdrugresistancetoGuidetherationaluseofantibiotics;(3)Strengthenmicrobiologicalinvestigationsoftheenvironmentandequipmenttomeettherequirementsofhygieneindicators;(4)Ensurethequalityofdisinfectionandsterilizationinthehospital;(5)PassepidemiologicalinvestigationsandbacteriologicaltypingExperiment,tracethesourceofinfectionandcontrolit.

(1)Valvonnan vahvistaminen

Theclinicalmicrobiologydepartmentisaninevitablememberofthehospitalinfectioncontrolcommittee,andmicrobiologicaltestingplaysanimportantroleinthemonitoringofhospitalinfections.Ifahospitalinfectionproblemisfoundintheclinicalmicrobiologicalexamination,itisnecessarytocontactthehospitalinfectioncontroldepartment,thewarddoctorandtheheadnurseintime,andpayattentiontothedevelopmenttrend.Somespecialdrug-resistantbacteriainhospitalinfections,suchasGRE,MRSA,ESBL-producingenterobacteriaceae,etc.,areoftenspreadthroughcross-infection.AspergillusandLegionellaareoftenpresentinairconditioners,watersupplysystems,andatomizationdevicesandcauseinfections.Routinemonitoringofthesourceofthesepathogenicbacteriaandremindingclinicalattentioncanusuallyeffectivelypreventthespreadandsavealotofanti-infectioncosts.

(2)SairaalainfektioKoulutus ja valmennus

TheclinicalmicrobiologydepartmentshouldparticipateinRelevantpersonnelcarryouteducationandtrainingofnosocomialinfections.Forexample,explaintherequirementsandprecautionsforthecollection,storage,andtransportationofclinicalmicrobialspecimens,whatpreparationsshouldbemadebypatientsbeforespecimencollection,whattimeandlocationshouldbeselectedforspecimencollection,howmanytimesaday,howmuchtocollect,andsamplinglocationExplainaseriesofissuessuchashowtodisinfect;trainthecommonhumanbody'snormalflora,colonizingbacteria,contaminatingbacteriaandinfectiousbacteria;thedetectionofvariousbacterialdrug-resistantenzymesanditsmeaningandthesignificanceintheselectionofantibioticsRegularcommunicationwiththeclinicandsoon.Variousmethodscanbeused,suchaslectures,seminars,briefings,posters,andevenparticipationinwardrounds.Itcanalsobeintegratedintocontinuingeducationandtrainingprogramsforhospitalinfectionmanagement.

(3)Osallistu desinfioinnin ja eristämisen hallintaan

Thecorrectandscientificimplementationofdisinfectionandisolationtechnologyisveryimportantforthepreventionandcontrolofnosocomialinfections.Correctguidance,Supervision,disinfectionandisolationisalsooneofthetasksoftheclinicalmicrobiologydepartment.Whenanoutbreakofnosocomialinfectionoraspecialdrug-resistantbacterialinfectionoccurs,clinicalmicrobiologyprofessionalsshouldparticipateintheformulationofdisinfectionandisolationmeasures,andprovideprofessionalmicrobiologicalopinionsonrelatedpersonnelmanagementandwastedisposal.

(4)Säännöllinen julkaisuBakteeriresistenssiSeurantatulokset

FormanyinfectionsThechoiceofantibacterialdrugsfordiseaseisempirical.However,empiricalmedicationalsoneedsthesupportofevidence-basedmedicineandepidemiologicaldata.ItisrecommendedtosaveallpathogenicbacteriaisolationanddrugsusceptibilitydatawithWHONETsoftware,regularlypublishbacterialdrugresistancemonitoringresults,statisticallyanalyzethedistributionanddrugresistancestatusofcommonpathogensinkeydepartmentssuchasICUatanytime,andchooseantibioticsforclinicalexperiencetoimprovesevereinfectionsThesuccessrateoftreatmentisveryhelpful.

(5)Hallitseminen molekyylityypitystekniikallasairaalainfektio

CommonlyusedmoleculartypingtechnologiesincludePFGE,RAPD,etc..Microbiologylaboratoriessetupmoleculartypinglaboratoriestoroutinelytypedrug-resistantbacteriathataremoreharmfulandeasytospread,whichisofgreatsignificancefortimelydetectionandcontrolofpathogenicbacteria.Thepracticeofsomeforeignhospitalsistocarryoutmoleculartypingofuncommondrug-resistantbacteriasuchasVREassoonastheyarediscovered.Accordingtothegenotyping,thepossibilityandscopeoftheepidemicwillbejudgedandcorrespondingmeasureswillbetakentocontroltheinfection.Forexample,ahospitalclassified19VREstrainsisolatedfrom16patientswithin2months,andtheresultsshowedthat14ofthemwereofonetypeandtheotherswereofonetype,whichhighlysuggestedtheprevalenceofVRE.Afterinvestigationandanalysis,itwasfoundthat1411ofthepatientshaddirectcontact.Basedontheseanalyses,targetedcontrolmeasuresweretakentostoptheinfection.Inotherhospitals,Klebsiellapneumoniae,Staphylococcusepidermidis,Staphylococcushemolyticus,Serratiamarcescensandotherinfectionepidemicshavebeencontrolledthroughmoleculartyping.Accordingtostatistics,thecostofestablishingamoleculartypinglaboratory(equipmentandpersonnel)inthemicrobiologylaboratoryis$180,050,andtheannualmoleculartyping-relatedexpenditureis$400,000.Assumingthatallhospitals(theUnitedStates)routinelyperformmoleculartyping,theexperiment-relatedcostsamounttoUS$2billion.,Butthesavedcostoftreatinghospitalinfectionswillbemorethan5times(10billionyuan).

Nimeäminen

Mikro-organismien luokitteluyksiköt: maailma, suku, luokka, järjestys, perhe, suku, laji

Lajit ovat yleisimmät taksonomiset yksiköt, jokainen taksonomian jälkeen voi olla alaryhmiä, alaluokkia, alaryhmiä, alaperheitä...

TakeS.cerevisiaeesimerkkinä, sen staxonomicposition on:

Kindom: Fungalkingdom

Phyllum:Fungus

Luokka: Ascomycete

Järjestys: Endospora

Perhe: Endomyces

Suku: Saccharomyces

Laji: Saccharomycescerevisiae

Species:Itisabasictaxonomicunit;itisthegeneraltermforalargegroupofstrainsthatarehighlysimilarinphenotypiccharacteristics,closelyrelatedtoeachother,andaresignificantlydifferentfromotherspeciesinthesamegenus.①Strainreferstoanypurebredpopulationandallitsdescendants(agroupofpurebreddescendantsthatoriginatedfromacommonancestorandmaintainthecharacteristicsoftheancestor)fromanindependentsinglecellmultiplication.Therefore,apurecultureofamicroorganismfromdifferentsourcescanbecalledastrainofthestrain.Thestrainemphasizesageneticallypurelineage.Forexample:TwostrainsofEscherichiacoli:EscherichiacoliBandEscherichiacoliK12

Strainnotation:Ifthespeciesisthebasicunitoftaxonomy,thenthestrainisactuallythebasicunitofapplication,becausethesameDifferentstrainsofstrainswillhavegreatdifferencesanddifferencesinthetypesofenzymesortheyieldsofmetabolites!②Subspeciesorvarieties:reclassificationwithinspecies.

Whendifferentstrainswithinacertainspecieshaveafewobviousandstablevariationcharacteristicsorgenetictraits,buttheyarenotenoughtodifferentiateintonewspecies,thesestrainscanbesubdividedintotwoormoreSmalltaxa-subspecies.

Varietyissynonymouswithsubspecies.Becausetheword"variety"caneasilycauseconfusioninthemeaningoftheword,theterm"variety"hasnotbeenusedsince1976.Themutantstrainsobtainedinthelaboratoryareusuallycalledsubspecies.

Forexample:E.colik12(wildtype)doesnotrequirespecialaa,andafterlaboratorymutation,adefectivetypeofaacanbeobtainedfromk12,whichiscalledasubspeciesofE.colik12.③Form:oftenreferstothesubdivisionbelowsubspecies.Whenthetraitdifferencesbetweendifferentstrainswithinthesamespeciesorthesamesubspeciesarenotenoughtobeclassifiedintonewsubspecies,theycanbesubdividedintodifferenttypes.Forexample:Accordingtothedifferenceofantigeniccharacteristics,itisdividedintodifferentserotypes.

Nomenclatureofmicroorganisms:Therearetwokindsofnamesofmicroorganisms:commonnamesandscientificnames.Suchas:redbreadmold-Neurosporacrassa;Pseudomonasaeruginosa-Pseudomonasaeruginosa.Scientificname-thescientificnameofmicroorganisms,itisnamedinaccordancewiththerulesdrawnupbytheInternationalCommitteeonClassificationofMicroorganisms.ThescientificnameiscomposedofLatinwordsorLatinizedforeignwords.Therearetwomethodsfornamingscientificnames,thedouble-namemethodandthetriple-namemethod.①Doublenamemethod:scientificname=genusname+speciesname+(firstnamedcelebrity)+currentcelebrity+namedyearGenericname:Latinnounsoradjectivesusedasnouns,singular,capitalizedfirstletter,indicatingthemaincharacteristicsofmicroorganisms,Constructedbymicroorganisms,shapesornamedbyscientists.Speciesname:Latinadjectiveswithlowercaseinitials,whicharesecondarycharacteristicsofmicroorganisms,suchasmicrobialpigment,shape,source,orscientist'sname,etc.Example:Escherichiacoli(Migula)CastellanietChalmers1919

StaphylococcusaureusRosenbach1884Whenreferringtoacertaingenusofmicroorganisms,butnotspecificallyreferringtoacertainspecies(orunspecifiedname)ofthegenus,Youcanaddsp.orssp.(representingthesingularandpluralformsofspeciesabbreviations)afterthegenusname.

Esimerkki:Saccharomycessp.Esittää Saccharomyces-suvun lajeja.Kannan nimi:Lisää numeroita, paikannimiä tai symboleja lajin nimen jälkeen.Esimerkki:BacillussubtilisAS1.389AS=AcademiaSinica

BacillussubtilisBF7658BF=Beifang

ClostridiumacetobutylicumATCC824ClostridiumacetobutylicumATCC824>

ATCC=AmericanTypeCultureCollectionAmericanTypeCultureCollection

Whenascientificnamehasappearedbeforeinthearticle,thegenusnamecanbeabbreviatedinto1~3lettersintheback.

Esimerkki:Escherichiacoli voidaan lyhentää nimellä E.coli

StaphylococcusaureuscanbeabbreviatedtoS.aureus②Threenamingmethods:usedtonamesubspecies,atthistimeinthegenusandspeciesnameAddasubsp.afterit,andthenaddthesubspeciesname(italics).Forexample:Bacillusthuringiensissubsp.galleriaBacillusthuringiensissubsp.Grifola