Groupthinking
Groupthinkingisaphenomenoningroupdecision-making.Itisaverycommonconceptintheliteratureofgroupdecision-making,referringtosuchsituations.Thegroup’spressureonconformitypreventsthegroupfromobtaininganobjectiveevaluationofunusual,minority,orunpopularviews,thatis,whenpeople’sneedtoseekconsistencyexceedstheneedforreasonableevaluationofalternativesThinkingmode.Groupthinkingisadiseasethathurtsmanygroups.Itwillseriouslydamagegroupperformance.Thatistosay:whenagroupexpressesitsopinionsonacertainissueorissue,itsometimesstaysinacollectivesilenceforalongtime,nooneexpressesanopinion,andthenpeoplewillunanimouslyapproveit.Usuallytheideasofkeymembersoftheorganizationwhohaveauthority,speakconfidently,andliketoexpressopinionsaremorelikelytobeaccepted,butinfact,mostpeopledonotapproveofthisproposal.Thereasonforthisisthatgroupmembersfeelthepressureofconsensusongroupnormsandareunwillingtoexpressdifferentopinions.Atthistime,theindividual'scontemplationandmoraljudgmentwillbeaffectedanddecline.Groupdecisionsmadeinthissituationareoftenunreasonableandfaileddecisions.Thishappenswhenanorganizationfocusestoomuchonintegrityandcannotevaluateitsdecisionsandassumptionsinacriticalmanner.
Anotherphenomenonisgroupshift,whichreferstoasituationinwhichgroupmemberstendtoexaggeratetheiroriginalpositionsoropinionsintheprocessofdiscussingalternativesandmakingdecisions..Insomecases,cautiousattitudeprevails,resultinginaconservativeshift.However,inmostcases,thegroupiseasytotransfertorisk.
TheoriginalgroupthinkingtheorywasproposedbyJanisin1972andfurtherexpandedin1977and1982.In1972,heputforwardaseriesofhypothesesbyobservingthebehaviorsofsmallgroupsthatperformproblem-solvingtasks,andcombinedthesehypothesesasgroupthinking.Subsequently,Janisusedtheconceptofgroupthinkingtoexplainsomefailedhigh-levelpoliticalandmilitarydecision-makingeventsinAmericanhistory,suchastheVietnamWarinthe1960sandNixon'sWatergateincident.
Aneffectivewaytopreventorreducegroupthinkingistoappointamembertospecificallyquestionotherpeople’sargumentsingroupdecision-making,challengeotherpeople’slogic,andprovideaseriesofconstructivecriticisms.Thismethodensuresthatarationalandclearmindismaintainedingroupdecision-making.Othermeasurestopreventgroupthinkingincludetakingturnstointroducenewmembers,invitingoutsiderstoparticipate,makingatimeoutbeforethefinaldecision,andgivingmembersthelastchancetoconfirmandexpresstheirreservations.
GiannisResearch
AfterconductingresearchontheBayofPigsfiascoandothermajordecision-makingfailuresinU.S.history,Giannispointedout:Thehigherthecohesionofagroup,themorelikelyitistocausegroupthinkingerrors.Therefore,hebelievesthatgroupthinkingis"deteriorationofpsychologicalbenefits,whichcomefrompressurewithinthegroup"(Janis,1972).Whyistheadvisorygrouphighlycohesive?Researchersbelievethat:
(1)TheadvisorygrouphasanillusionthattheirplanisperfectandthattheCastroregimeisnotasgoodastheUSregime;
(2)Theopinionoftheadvisorygroupseemstobeunanimous,butinfactitisnotthecase.Someoneonceputforwarddifferentopinionsbutdidnotdaretoinsist,whichcreatedtheillusionofunanimity;
(3)TothosewhodisagreeThereisalotofpressure;
(4)TheadvisoryteambelievesthatKennedyiscorrect,soheobeyedhisopinion.
Grouppolarizationeffects
"Group-polarizationeffects"areadirectmanifestationofgroupthinking.Researchershavefoundthatingroupdiscussions,thedecisionsmadebyindividualsareoftenmoreextremethantheiroriginalopinions.Therefore,ifgroupmembershaveatendencytoagreewithacertainproposalbeforethediscussion,theirdegreeofagreementwillbestrongerduringthemeeting.Similarly,ifthereisabitofobjectionbeforethediscussion,itwillbeevenmoreobjectionableduringthemeeting.
Theeffectofgrouppolarizationcanbeseeneverywhere.Forexample,jurorshadpreliminaryandvagueopinionsonwhetherthedefendantwasguiltyornot.Afterdiscussingwitheachother,theyconfirmedtheiropinionsmorepositively(Kalven&Zeisel,1966).Foranotherexample,highschoolstudentswhooriginallyhadracialprejudicetendtobecomemoreextremeingroupdiscussions;whilethosewhowerepreviouslylessprejudicedbecamelessprejudiced(Myers&Bixhop,1970).Afteranindividualjoinsagroup,hisattitudeorbehaviorwillbemoreextremethanbeforejoining,andtheattitudedirectionbeforejoiningandafterjoiningisthesame(Johnsonetvomit,1977).Regardlessofwhetherheadmitstobeamemberofacertaingroup,ifthisgroupishisreferencegroup,theimportantvalueofthegroupalsohastheeffectofstrengtheningpersonalfeelings;asforthepersonwhotendstobeadventurousorcautious,considerthereferenceDependsonthevalueofthegroup.
Therearemanyresearchresultsthatshowthatthereisasignificantdifferencebetweenthebehaviorofindividualsengagedindecision-makingaloneandthebehaviorofindividualsengagedindecision-makingwithinagroup(Kogan&Wallach,1964).Whenindividualsinagroupactmorealone,theywilladoptmoreriskyviewpoints,andthusexhibitriskierbehaviors.Thisphenomenon,wecallriskychange.Generally,thefollowingthreeexplanationscanbeusedtoexplainthisriskychangephenomenon.First,thediffusionofresponsibilityinagroupcontext.Groupmembersbelievethatanyblameorgroupresponsibilityimposedonthegroupshouldbesharedbyeveryone,notbyasingleindividual.Inotherwords,eachindividualgroupmemberislessdirectlyresponsibleforanydecisionmadebythegroup.Second,theculturalvaluerelatedtoadventure.Ifriskyeffortsaremorepositivelyapproved,butconservativebehaviorsmaynotbeapproved,theninagroup(social)situation,individualswilladoptmoreriskybehaviorsduetothissubtlepressure.Third,thegroupisoneofthesourcesofinformationdistribution,andthegroupcanchooseamoreadventurousview.
Mainmanifestations
Multiplesymptoms
Groupthinkingphenomenonhasmultiplesymptommanifestations:
1.Groupmembersjustifyanyobjectionstotheassumptionstheymake.Nomatterhowstrongtheconflictbetweenfactsandtheirbasicassumptionsis,thebehaviorofmemberscontinuestoreinforcethisassumption.
2.Forthosewhodoubtthecommonviewsofthegroupfromtimetotime,orthosewhodoubttheargumentsthateveryonebelievesin,thegroupmembersexertdirectpressureonthem.
3.Thosewhoholddoubtsorhavedifferentopinionsoftentrytoavoiddisagreementwithgroupopinionsbykeepingsilentorevenloweringtheimportanceoftheiropinions.
4.Itseemsthatthereisanillusionofnodoubtthatifsomeoneremainssilent,peopleoftenthinkthatheagrees.Inotherwords,absenteesareconsideredtobeapprovers.
ResearchonthehistoryofU.S.foreignpolicydecision-makingprocessshowsthatthesesymptomscanbeseeneverywhereinunsuccessfulgovernmentdecision-making,suchastheunpreparedPearlHarborincidentin1941andtheU.S.invasionofNorthKorea.TheInvasionofPigLuoBayandtheVietnamWar.Itisespeciallyimportantthatinthegroupdecision-makingprocessofsuccessfulpolicies,thesefourcharacteristicsofgroupthinking,suchastheCubanMissileCrisisandtheformationoftheMarshallPlan,arenotvisible.
AwarenessofLordship
Duetoasmoothcareer,managershavebecomemoreandmorestubborn,andallmajordecisionsareledbythecompanyPeoplemakeitbythemselves,andtheyarehighlysubjectiveandarbitrary.Astrongparentwillcreateabrilliantbusinessventureforthecompany,butitisdifficulttoinstitutionalizeandre-copythemanagementstylewithuniquepersonalcharacteristics.Entrepreneursbornatthebottomhaveasomewhatvengefulorcompensatorymentality;thosewhosepoliticalaspirationshavebeenfrustratedtreattheirbusinessasanimaginarypoliticalarena.Infact,manyprivateentrepreneurswhohavethiskindofconsciousnessarerelatedtotheirorigins.Especiallyforthefirstgenerationofentrepreneurs.
Machiavelliancultureandcorporatepolitics
Anotherconsequenceoftheentrepreneur’ssenseoflordshipisthetacticalcultureandcorporatepolitics.Prevail.Thiskindofcentralizedparentalleadershipstylealsomakesbusinessmanagersdislikesubordinatesshowingstrongertalentsthanhiminordertomaintaintheirauthoritystatus;emphasizingtheabsoluteobedienceofsubordinatestotheirownorders,whichmakestheemployeesofChinesecompaniesinnovativeAwarenessisweak,theyjustmechanicallyrepeatworkunderorders,andtheyhavedifficultyrespondingtochangesinthemarket.Sinceitisthelord,everythingisbasedonwhetherhelistenstothelord’swordsandwhetherhefollowsthelord’swillasthestandard,ratherthantheactualcontributiontotheenterprise.Thefinalresultisthattherearealargenumberofworkplacepoliticiansincompanies,theydonotdopracticalwork,buttopleaseentrepreneursasthetask,alldaytofigureoutthewillofleadership.Incontrast,thesepeoplearepromotedbecausetheymakeentrepreneurshappy,soeveryonegatherstogethertoimitate,dosuperficialwork,slackentheirbeards,andthosewhoreallycontributetotheenterprisewillnotgetallkindsofbenefitsandremuneration.Intheend,Eithertheyareinthesameway,changingfrom"beingabletodothings"totheso-called"beingaman",ortheywillleave,andbadmoneywilldriveoutgoodmoney.
Humangovernance
Anotherconsequenceofthestrategycultureandcorporatepoliticsisthelackofacompletedecision-makingmechanismandDemocraticmanagementmechanism.Allmajordecisionsaremadebytheleadersthemselves.Theyarehighlysubjectiveandarbitrary.Thecorrectnessoftheirdecisionsmainlydependsonthepersonalabilitiesoftheleaders.Thisactuallybreedsagreaterriskofmakingwrongdecisions..Thelargertheenterprise,thegreaterthedanger.Manyprivateentrepreneurslackthissenseofscaleandaresatisfiedwiththesmallandrich.Someprivateentrepreneurssticktothenarrowconceptofpettyfights,familymanagement,andsmallboatsturningaround.Theyareunwillingtocooperatewithothersincapitalandtechnology,whichmakesitdifficultforprivateenterprisestogrowintoalarge-scaleenterprise,anditisdifficulttomovetowardenterprisegrouping,whichfundamentallyrestrictsthem.Thesustainabledevelopmentofprivateenterprises.Enterpriseswithaconsiderablescaleoffamily-manufacturer-corporatesystem,includingsomecompaniesthathaveleftthefamilyorevenshareholdingsystems,havenotcrossedthefamilythresholdorparentalauthoritymodelandconvertedtoamoderncorporatesystem.Investigatingitsownreasons,themostfundamentaloneistherestraintoffamilialculture.Afteracompanyhasachievedcertainresults,itiseasytotakecreditforit,andthenitwillactarbitrarilyandexcludedissidents,forming"one-talk,family-basedmanagement".Inthisway,withoutanychecksandbalancesandsupervisionwithinthecompany,oncethedecisionismadeincorrectly,thecompanywillIndesperation.Thisisprovedbyhundredsofcases.Authoritativemanagement,relyingontheformationofpersonalleadership,caneasilyleadtotheprosperityofenterpriseswithhumanbeingsandthedeclineofenterpriseswithhumandeaths.
Causalanalysis
Inmanyprivateenterprises,theauthorityofparentsisquitehighduetothepowerofreference,expert,reward,andcoercivepowerbybusinessoperatorsovertheirmembers.Underthecoverofthiskindofparentalauthority,businessoperatorsareoftenpronetoshowacentralizedparentalleadershipstylethatcombinesauthoritarianauthorityandeducation.Thepowerofthecompanyisgenerallyconcentratedinthehandsofthepresidentortwoorthreeseniormanagers.Theymakeallimportantdecisionsontheirownonthebasisofsufficientinformationprovidedbytheirsubordinates,withouttheneedfordemocraticdiscussionandapproval.Atthesametime,subordinatesarerequiredtoobeytheirbossesabsolutely,andindividualsareabsolutelyobedienttothegroup.
Someprivateentrepreneurslackthequalitiesthatmodernentrepreneursshouldpossess.First,privateentrepreneurslacktheculturalheritageoftransitioningtomodernentrepreneurs.Privateenterprisesgenerallyhavetheproblemofexcesscapitalaccumulationmechanismbutinsufficientcapitalconcentrationmechanism.Theculturalmindsetofpreferringachickenheadratherthanaphoenixtailmakesmanysmallcapitalsunwillingtojointogethertobecomebigcapitalstodeveloplargeenterprises.Asawhole,privateentrepreneurshavenotyetformedthemainstreamculturaltendencytotrulygetridofthesecularizedculture.Mistakessuchaslackofindustrialspirit,speculativeness,disorder,andonlyimmediateinterestsrestricttherationaldecision-makingofentrepreneurs.Entrepreneursaredecisionmakers.Iftheywanttomakereasonableandcorrectdecisions,theymustobserveproblemsintheirworkcomprehensively,analyzethemaccurately,andsolvetheminearnest.Thisrequiresacertainamountoftheoreticalliteracy.
Theoreticalliteracycanupdatetheirwayofthinking,changetheirempiricalthinkingintorationalthinking,andelevateperceptualknowledgetorationalknowledge,andusetheoreticalknowledgetoguidepractice,sothatentrepreneurscanmakescientificallyandrationallydecisionmaking.Secondly,theoreticalliteracycanbringaboutrenewalofideas,therebyenablingentrepreneurstomakecreativedecisions.Onlybybreakingthroughtheconstraintsoftraditionalconceptsandestablishingmodernconceptscanweguidetheprogressofenterprises.Third,thecomplicatedeconomicrelationshipmakespeoplefeelthattheinvisiblehandofthemarketissoelusive.However,aslongasentrepreneursstrengthentheoreticalstudyandimprovetheirowntheoreticalliteracy,theycanstandonahigherlevelofunderstanding,grasptheobjectivelawsofthemarketeconomymoredeeply,andwininmarketcompetition.Entrepreneurslackthewayofthinkingandstrategicpositioningthatpointtothefuture,andthereisnooverallviewandlong-termplanning.mycountry’seconomyhasgraduallyformedanapparentoversupplyofthemarket.Theeconomicgrowthhasalsochangedfromaquantitativeexpansiontoaqualityandbenefittype.EveryenterprisehasFacedwithanewquestionoffuturestrategicchoices.Evenifitisatemporarysuccessfulcompany,ifitlacksaclearconceptanddueforesightofthemarketandthefuture,thenitisinevitabletomakemistakesindecision-making.Theancientssaid:Thosewhodonotseektheoverallsituationarenotenoughtoseekadomain,andthosewhodonotseekthewholeworldcannotseekforawhile.Entrepreneursshouldkeeptheoverallsituationinmindandconsiderthedevelopmentoftheenterprisefromalong-termperspective.However,manyentrepreneurshavemadethewrongchoicebecauseofeagernessforquicksuccessandshort-termprofit,whichledtothefailureoftheenterprise.Furthermore,someoperatorsneglecttheupdateofknowledge,andsomeprivateentrepreneursdonotreadbooks,donotreadnewspapers,donotdelveintomanagementtheory,andignoretheupdateofknowledge.Usingsuchaculturalknowledgestructuretocontrolanenterpriseintoday'sfiercecompetitionwillinevitablybecomemoreandmoredifficult.Theyarepowerless,lackmodernawareness,andlacktheabilitytoforesight.Theytakeonestepatatime,andtheydon’tknowwheretogonext.
Thesolution
Avoidarbitrarydecision-making
Firstofall,avoidarbitrarydecision-makingsex.Theenterprisegroupisaneconomicorganization,andeachofitsbehaviorsmustcarryoutthecalculationofspecificprofitfigures.Thepresidentandstaffmembersshouldbecomerealbusinessmen,possessbusinessmen’sthinking,andbeaccustomedtobusinessmen’sbehaviors.Sincethepurposeofcapitalistopursueprofit,entrepreneurswhoarepersonifiedofcapitalmusttakeprofitastheirpurpose,andanyarbitrarydecision-makingthatdoesnotcalculatethecostanddoesnottakeintoaccountthebudgetaryprofitshouldnotappear.
Avoidvaguenessandblindness
Secondly,avoidvaguenessandblindnessindecision-making.Beingunfamiliarisoneofthebusinessrules.Forunfamiliarfieldsandprojects,ifthereisnoexperttoguideandhelpimplement,thendon'tmakechoices,andavoidirrationaldecisionssuchasapproximate,estimation,andpossiblyother.Again,avoidtheimpatienceofdecision-making.Themarketeconomyhasonlythebeginningwithoutending,andallbusinessmenmustparticipateintheendlessmarketcompetitionwithacalmmind.Therefore,thedecision-makinglevelwithentrepreneursasthecoremustalwaysthinkandpreparefortheoverallarrangementoftheenterprise.Onlythencanwebepreparedandnotchaoticinthefaceofdanger.
Dealingwiththerelationshipbetweenpeopleandthesystem
ThelastandmostimportantpointisthatenterprisesshouldembarkonamodernmanagementpathToachievebetterdevelopment,wemusthandletherelationshipbetweentheleader’spersonalauthorityandasoundmanagementsystem,andtherelationshipbetweencentralizationanddecentralization.Toachievethis,wemustfirstestablishascientificdecision-makingmechanismwithintheenterprise.Whenmakingmajordecisions,businessleadersshouldpooltheirwisdom,listentotheopinionsofprofessionalsandstaff,makescientificdecisionsbasedoninvestigationsandresearch,andchangethepast.Thispracticeofdoingthingsintuitivelyreducestheriskofdecision-makingerrors;secondly,itencouragesparticipationinmanagement,encouragesemployeestomakereasonablesuggestionstothecompany,changesthepastpracticeofunilaterallyrequiringsubordinatestoobey,allowingthemtoholddifferentviewsonordersfromsuperiors,andencourageinnovation,Tomobilizetheenthusiasmandcreativityofemployees;third,effectiveauthorizationshouldbecarriedout,nodoubtabouttheuseofpeople,anddoubtsaboutuse,shouldfullytrusttheabilitiesofsubordinates,givethemcorrespondingresponsibilitiesandrights,andencouragethemtocompletetheirworkindependently.Onlygivenecessaryguidanceandsupervision,insteadofdoingeverythingbyyourselfasinthepast.
Analysisofprosandcons
ThephenomenonofgroupthinkingseemstobecompletelyconsistentwiththeconclusionsofAxi’scomparativelineexperiment.Iftheindividual'sopinionisinconsistentwiththeopinionofmostgroupmembersinacontrollingposition,hemaysuccumb,withdrawormodifyhistruefeelingsorbeliefsundergrouppressure.
Asamemberofagroup,wewillfindthatbeingconsistentwiththegroup,thatis,beinganactivememberofthegroup,ismorebeneficialtousthanbeinganinterferenceforce,evenifsuchinterferenceisbeneficialtoimprovingtheeffectofgroupdecision-making.necessary.
Areallgroupsvulnerabletogroupthinking?Factshaveprovedthatthisisnotthecase.Researchersfocusedonthreeintermediaryvariables:groupcohesion,groupleaderbehavior,andisolationfromoutsiders.Buttheresearchresultsareinconsistent.Onthispoint,themosteffectiveconclusionthatcanbemadeis:
(1)Therearemorediscussionswithinagroupwithstrongcohesion,whichcanbringmoreinformation,butdoesthiskindofgroupdiscouragethegroup?Itisdifficulttodeterminetheobjectionsraisedbymembers;
(2)Ifgroupleadersarefairandunselfishandencouragegroupmemberstoputforwardtheirownopinions,groupmemberswillproposemorewaystosolveproblemsanddomoreDiscussion;
(3)Intheearlystageofthediscussion,groupleadersshouldavoidshowingapreferenceforcertainschemes,becausedoingsowillrestrictgroupmembersfrommakingcriticalopinionsonthisissue.Itispossibleforthegrouptoregardthiskindofschemeasthefinalchoice;
(4)Theisolationofthegroupfromtheoutsideworldwillreducethenumberofdifferentalternativesthatcanbeselectedandevaluatedinternally.